对比论文范文

推荐第1篇：英汉对比论文

英汉定语比较和翻译 一． 引言

有人认为，翻译可以“无师自通”，“自学成才”；“外文词不认识可以查字典，只要有点外语基础，就能搞翻译”。一言以蔽之，翻译容易，但是对于真正从事翻译的工作者来说，翻译无不很难。因为中英文属于两种完全不同的语系，以及中西方人在思维方式上存在差异等。这些原因导致了各种现象，如很难在中文中找到一个完全与英语对等的单词，英语重型合，汉语重意合，句子成分之间存在很大等差异。为了翻译工作者更好的理解中英定语的差异，本文讨论中英语种

在英语中，定语是附加在主语和宾语的前面，用来修饰或限制主语宾语的词或词组。主要有形容词，此外还有名词、代词、数词、介词短语、动词不定式（短语）、分词、定语从句或相当于形容词的词、短语或句子都可以作定语。而在汉语中，定语常由形容词、数量词、名词、代词充当，也可有其他词或短语充当。由此可以知道，在英汉语中，充当定语的成份是有差异的，这种差异是由英汉语的本质性差异决定的，汉语是重意合，而英语是重型合，在汉语中，语言组织以意御型，无词性变化，所有的动词都是动词原形，没有动词不定式，分词和过去式之分，汉语的动词，至少相当于英语的谓语动词、现在在分词、不定式、动名词五种可能。如“去”， 既可能是watch(watches), watching(现在分词）, watched , to watch, watching(动名词）中的任何一种，因为汉语中缺乏词形变化标记，也不像英语一样，要求成分（主谓宾）和词性（名动形)之间的严格一致。

例（1）正在看的，将要去看的，已经看过的电影

the movie ( which is) being watching, the movie to be watched, the movie that will be watched, the movie that has been watched.从上面的句子中可以看出，英语的动词发生了各种变化（现在分词，过去式，不定式等）而汉语的动词并没有变化，都是“看”。 英汉两种语言之间的本质性差异决定了其句子定语也会产生差异。

二、英汉定语的位置的差异

定语是修饰主语和定语的语法成分，说明事物的属性，类型或特征。在英语里，单个词做定语时一般放在被修饰词前面，但是介词短语，不定式短语，分词短语，从句做定语时一般放在被修饰成分的后面。汉语则不然，只要是定语，它一般只能放在被修饰词之前，放在后面的情况绝少。因此，翻译时，需要调整语序。而英语中

1）前置定语

前置定语指置于定语中心语之前对之起修饰作用的成分。英汉语种都有前置定语，但两种语言中充当定语的语言单位不同，英语的前置定语一般以词为主（包括复合词和带前置修饰语的词），这和汉语定语顺序相同，因此，在这种情况下，汉译时一般可以直接按照原来的顺序翻译成汉语而不会影响其意思如：

（1）a famous university.(形容词）一所著名的学校（2）our cla(代词）我们班 （3） living room( 现在分词）起居室 （4）service industry(名词）服务业

（5）three boys(数词） 三个男孩 （6）spoken language(过去分词）口语

另外,有些形容词也有特殊的次序:

1) 描述身体特征的形容词先于表示情感和性格特征的形容词，这时候，英译汉就需要适当的微调语序了。

例（1）a small lovely girl , 一个可爱的小女孩

例（2）a pale anxious patient ; 一个焦虑的面色苍白的病人

2) 表示颜色的形容词放在表示情感和性格特征的形容词之后

例如:a kindly black teacher ,an inquisitive brown dog ;

3) little ,old 和young 有时可以作为名词短语不可分割的一部分,所以可以直接放在名词之前,

例如:a lovely little girl

4) 表示性格特征的形容词可以放在old young 之前,也可放在old young 之后,例如:

a young ambitious man (强调年龄) ,an ambitious young man(强调雄心勃勃) 。

当然,三个以上形容词连用作定语,就显得累赘,因此上面所说的情况一般较少出现.

2）定语后置 （1）短语作定语一般后置

It was a conference fruitful of results.那是一个硕果累累的会议。

He gave me a basket full of eggs.他给我一个装满鸡蛋的篮子。

English is a language easy to learn but difficult to master.英语是一门容易学但是难精通的语言。

The boys hardest to teach are all in his cla.最难教的男生都在他的班里了。

（2）修饰some，any，no，every等词构成的不定代词的定语都后置

Let’s go somewhere quiet.咱们去找个安静一点的地方吧。

There is nothing important in today\'s newspaper.今天报纸上没有什么重要的东西。

Do you have anything more to say? 你还有什么话要说吗?

（3）副词作定语后置

The people here are very friendly.这里的人很友好。

They lived in the room above.他们住在楼上的房间。

（4）动词、名词转化而来的以-able,-ible 结尾的形容词作定语

He is a person dependable.他是一个可以依靠的人

This is the only transportation means available.这是唯一可行的交通工具。

（5）起强调用的单个分词后置

Everybody involved should stay here.

The college mentioned.

（6）特殊词

Could you tell me something imporpant.

例(1） 船慢慢的向前驶着，沿途见了停着的好几只灰色的白色的军舰。（后置）

While the ship was steering ahead slowing, i saw on the way many warships in gray or write.(张培基 英译中国现代散文选中离别） 英国是第一个承认中华人民共和国的西方大国（后置）

例（2）Britain was the first Western power to recognize the People’s Republic of China.例（3）

三、英汉定语分类的差异

汉语只在语义上区分定语，分为描述性定语和限制性定语。英语除了这种区分，还区分限制性和非限制性。在英语中的定语类型更多，在平时学习中应加以注意。除此之外，在汉语中，不存在“定语从句”主要是汉语中没有像which/that 那种英语从句的形式标记。但是汉语有“主谓结构定语”，大体相当于英语的定语从句。如： 我最喜欢的一本书翻译为the book( that ) i like best

但是需要注意的是当英语的前置定语数量过多时应考虑其排列的先后顺序。从多个前置定语的次序来看, 英语定语的基本次序是范围由小到大, 程度由低到高, 由 次 要 到 重 要 , 由 一 般 到 专 有, 意思越具体, 物质性越强, 就越接近中心词, 汉语则正好相反。 英语形容词前后次序的大致规律是, 限定词—表大小、长短、高低 的 形 容 词 —表 形 状 的 形 容 词 —表 年 龄、新 旧的形容词—表颜色的形容词—表国籍、地区出处的形容词。这种前置结构在翻译时应根据具体情况按原序翻译或者做出适当的微调。

推荐第2篇：中日茶文化对比论文

中国与日本茶文化对比

引言：茶叶是起源于中国的世界性饮品,由茶的发展而形成的茶文化也是世界文化史上的一个重要组成部分。中国作为茶文化的发祥地,在茶文化的发展史上占有举足轻重的地位。而日本,这个毗邻中国的东方岛国,其对茶文化的发展和研究无论是从数量上还是在质量上都位居世界前列。下文将通过中国茶文化与日本茶道文化的对比来发现其差别。 关键词：茶 茶道 民族 正文

中国是茶叶的故乡茶文化历史悠久层次复杂内容丰富。日本茶道和茶道文化起源于中国的茶文化无论从形式还是从实质来说都同中国文化有着不可割裂的联系。然而一方面中国茶文化传到日本已经一千多年了经过日本本土的影响从最初的模仿到不断地改造和不断地注入日本的民族特性而最终成为了代表和体现日本民族性的文化另一方面中国茶文化也处于不断的历史变迁过程中所以中国茶文化和日本茶道既有联系又有了较大的差异。

一、中国茶与文化

（一）中国茶文化发展历程

中国是茶的故乡，是世界上最早发现茶树、利用茶叶和栽培茶树的国家。茶树的起源至少已有六七万年的历史。茶被人类发现和利用，大约已经有四五千年的历史。茶文化产生之初是由儒家积极入世的思想开始的。两晋北朝时，一些有眼光的政治家便提出"以茶养廉"，以对抗当时的奢侈之风。魏晋以来，天下骚乱，文人无以匡世，渐兴清淡之风。这些人终日高谈阔论，必有助兴之物，于是，多兴宴饮，所以最初的清淡家多酒徒。如：竹林七贤。后来清淡之风发展到一般文人，但能豪饮终日不醉的毕竟是少数，而茶则可长饮且始终保持清醒，于是清淡家们就转向好茶。所以后期出现了许多茶人。唐代茶圣陆羽的茶经在历史上吹响了中华茶文化的号角。从此茶的精神渗透了宫廷和社会，深入中国的诗词、绘画、书法、宗教、医学。几千年来中国不但积累了大量关于茶叶种植、生产的物质文化、更积累了丰富的有关茶的精神文化，这就是中国特有的茶文化，属于文化学范畴。

（二）中华民族茶文化的社会作用

人们常说，“茶中人生，哲理悠悠”。大概是说的就是饮茶和思茶之人往往能从茶中得到深刻的人生道理吧。这句话并不是没有道理的，茶文化深刻的内涵和其重要的历史地位早已经神扎入每一个中华儿女的心中。中华民族在历史的长河中，不断改造自然创造物质财富的同时，也创造了光辉灿烂的文化，为世界人类的进步和发展做出了巨大的贡献，意义十分深远。茶文化是中华文化教育的一个重要组成部分；茶文化教育的表现及存形式，既有物质形态的，也有精神形态的。表现为物质形态的，诸如茶的历史文物、遗迹、茶书、茶画、各种名优茶、茶馆、茶具、茶歌舞和茶艺表演等等。表现为精神形态的，诸如茶德、茶道精神、以茶待客、以茶养廉、以茶养性等等，其内涵极其丰富；由于茶文化的内涵极其丰富，既是物质的，也是精神的，因此中华茶文化在发展的过程中所发挥的社会功能和作用也必然是多方面的。传统的茶文化与人们社会生活的关系，向来就是非常密切的，无论是历史文人生活中的“琴棋书画洒诗茶”，还是平民百姓生活中的“柴米油盐酱醋茶”，茶都是不可缺少的。茶文化发展至现代，茶的社会功能更加突出，例如，以茶会友、以茶联谊、以茶代酒、以茶养性等等著名词语，更是将中华茶文化的精髓体现的淋漓尽致。茶能洗净尘心，导致清和。 中华民族是一个文明古国、礼仪之邦，无论贫富，大凡家有客来，均有以茶待客的礼仪。在民间亦有“粗茶淡饭，不成敬意”的说法。国家领导人会见外宾时，也往往以茶赠客，中国茶文化在社交场合中的地位，由此可见一斑。中华茶文化中的“礼”，几乎贯穿了整个茶文化的所有内容，从倒茶、敬茶、品茶等一系列活动中，均与“礼”有密不可分的联系。

二、日本茶道

（一）从中国而来的日本茶道

日本的茶道已具有800年的历史，是日本的传统文化。茶道，顾名思义，即品茶之道。就是在茶艺操作过程中所追求和体现的精神境界和道德风尚。日本与中国一衣带水，中日两国自古以来就有着政治、经济和文化的联系。茶文化是两国源远流长的文化交流内容之一，特别是茶文化作为中日文化交流关系的纽带，一直起着重要作用。

唐顺宗永贞元年，日本最澄禅师从我国研究佛学回国，在他回国的行李中，就有中国的茶籽，最澄禅师将茶籽种在近江（滋贺县）。815年，日本嵯峨天皇莅临滋贺县梵释寺，僧人们献上清茶一杯。天皇饮后龙心大悦，开始大力推广饮茶，于是茶叶在日本得到大面积栽培。

（二）日本茶文化

日本茶道是在“日常茶饭事”的基础上发展起来的，以千利休提出的“和，敬，清，寂”四字为宗旨，将日常生活行为与宗教、哲学、伦理和美学熔为一炉，成为一门综合性的文化艺术活动。它不仅仅是物质享受，通过茶会，学习茶礼，它还可以陶冶性情，培养人的审美观和道德观念。正如桑田中亲说的：“茶道已从单纯的趣味、娱乐，前进成为表现日本人日常生活文化的规范和理想。” 茶道之茶称为“佗茶”，“佗”有“幽寂”、“闲寂”的含义。“清”与“寂”指的是环境的清幽与寂静。邀来几个朋友，坐在幽寂的茶室里，边品茶边闲谈，不问世事，无牵无挂，无忧无虑，修身养性，心灵净化，别有一番美的意境。千利休的“茶禅一味”、“茶即禅”观点，可以视为茶道的真谛所在。

日本的茶道源于中国，却具有日本民族味。它有自己的形成、发展过程和特有的内蕴，它将日常生活行为与宗教、哲学、伦理和美学熔为一炉，成为一门综合性的文化艺术活动。它不仅仅是物质享受，而且通过茶会，学习茶礼，陶冶性情，培养人的审美观 和道德观念。日本茶道在许多方面受禅宗影响的成为一个完整的生 活体系。日本茶道的鼻祖僧人村田珠光强调“茶道之美来自自身的内心功夫”。这正是禅宗所提倡的“内省”或“自悟”。而历代茶人要去禅寺修禅后，返回茶室过茶人的生活，对茶人来说，佛法就存在于茶汤之中，别无他求，饮茶的过程就是追求“茶禅一味”的境界。也就是说茶道里“禅”的内涵，在于通过繁琐的规则来磨练人心，当这些规则不再令饮茶者厌烦，当饮茶人信手而为就符合茶道礼法时，才算领会了茶的真谛，才能喝到一杯好茶，才能最终达到“茶禅一味”的境界。

三、中国茶文化的继承发扬者

（一）两国茶文化联系

中日茶道都是取茶的清心、静气、养神、助智等健康向上的精义。两者之间有颇深的渊源。中日茶文化虽有不同，但渊源颇深。中国茶叶传入日本，最初，应是圣德太子派遣遣隋使并且随着唐朝的强盛发展，日本已不在满足于当时没落而又单纯的部民制形式，试图探索和汲取中国文化的精髓。而随着“大化改新”的推行，日本从政治制度，土地制度，科学文教，风俗习惯等向唐朝开始了全面的模仿和学习，这其中也包括茶文化，所以中日茶文化颇有渊源。

（二）两国茶文化差异

由于地理环境，社会发展程度以及思想文化的不同，中日茶文化又存在巨大的差异。中国茶文化以儒家思想为核心，融儒、道、佛为一体，三者互为补充、绝少抵触，从而使中国的茶文化内容非常丰富，无论从哪个层次、哪个方面讲都能做出宏篇大论。而日本茶道则主要反映中国禅宗思想，当然也融进了日本国民的精神和思想意识。中国人“以茶表礼仁”、“以茶表敬意”、“以茶可行道”、“以茶可雅志”，充分贯彻了儒家礼、义、仁、德的道德观念以及中庸和谐的精神标准。日本茶道吸收了中国茶文化思想的部分内容，主张“和、敬、清、寂”，公开申明“茶禅一位”，它规劝人们要和平共处，互敬互爱，廉洁朴实，修身养性。但同时日本茶文化注重修性，有非常复杂繁琐的程序，它的传播阶层多为上流社会，带有浓重的宗教色彩。

结论：

从两国茶文化的差异可看出中华民族与大和民族的差异：中国茶文化所反映的中华民族特性主要有四 一是重视现实人生，二是追求人格完善，三是讲求和谐，四是以天人合一为最高的审美美感；日本茶道所反映的日本民族的特性也主要有四：一是重规范，二是重礼义，三是重视自我克制和坚强意志训练，四是独特的悲剧审美美感。中国茶文化和日本茶道都是东方文化的奇葩在世界文明史上各显风采、引人深思。日本茶道与中国茶道一样，其中蕴涵着的文化博大精深，尤其是对于一个外人来说，要把握其精髓，确实需要渊博的知识和不懈的努力茶道在日本传统文化中占有标致性的主导地位，成为极具代表性的日本传统文化的瑰宝。茶道是日本民族的文化象征，在世界传统文化中颇具影响。无论是中国茶文化还是日本茶道，都是一衣带水一脉相承的文化，经过千百年的演化，它们形成了自己独特的风格并将继续传承下去。中国茶文化和日本茶道都是东方文化的奇葩在世界文明史上各显风采、引人深思。理解中国茶文化和日本的茶道文化的联系要结合各自的历史及茶文化在历史过程中的变迁才能得到正确的认识。

参考文献：

韩旭李睿杜泳 中日茶文化交流的历史地理学透视 [J];农业考古;2011年02期

高燕 浅谈日本的茶道文化 [J];网络财富;2010年11期 彭云 龙中日茶文化发展的对比探讨 [J];魅力中国;2010年04期 关剑平文化传播视野下的茶文化研究 [J]农业出版社; 2009年5月1日

推荐第3篇：中美交通对比论文

当代，论文常用来指进行各个学术领域的研究和描述学术研究成果的文章，简称之为论文。它既是探讨问题进行学术研究的一种手段，又是描述学术研究成果进行学术交流的一种工具。下面就是小编整理的中美交通对比论文，一起来看一下吧。

摘 要:文章就中美两国的公路交通状况进行比较,分析了两国的公路交通状况以及公路交通发展的现状,并预期两国公路交通发展的未来,指出我国应该学习美国的一些方面。

关键词:中国公路 美国公路 差异比较

俗话说:“要致富,先修路。”一个国家的经济发展离不开交通运输、包括公路运输,铁路运输、航运、空运等。最早的运输方式除了航运外就属公路运输了。而航运由于受到天气、科技技术等因素的影响,有一定的局限性,所以,公路交通运输自古以来就是人们运输、出行的重要途径。从古代的“茶马古道”、“丝绸之路”到如今四通八达的公路交通网,无不揭示了公路交通运输的重要性。公路运输作为当今重要的短途运输手段,自然也是每个国家着重发展的对象。当今世界,公路交通最发达的国家当属美国,伴随着20世纪前叶的高速发展,美国的公路交通网已经十分发达。而中国,这在经历了一系列的发展与改革之后,也逐渐开始注重发展公路交通,并把公路交通建设写进了政府报告,这也预示着中国已经把公路交通建设放在了国家战略的高度。两国之间由于国家发展程度、文化背景不同,两国的公路发展情况也各不相同。下面笔者将就两国的公路交通状况进行论述。

一、美国公路概况

早在1944年,美国政府已经开始构思要在全美范围内的大都市间修建高速公路网。虽然早期所修建的高速公路标准不高,问题较多,但这一时期建设的高速公路后来成为美国20世纪60年代中期研究的对象和总结的资源。从1940年美国的第一条高速公路的建成到20世纪70年代早期美国的州际高速公路网的形成,用了近30年的时间,经历罗斯福、艾森豪威尔和尼克松等几任总统,而每一任都是按照早已规划好了的公路网进行组织实施。

如今在美国,汽车是必不可少的交通工具。没有了车,就基本没有了出门的可能,无论游玩、工作,还是购物。外加近年来不断加剧的经济衰退势头,更使政府大力支持汽车产业以缓解地方财政压力。

由于诸多原因,在美国几乎每个长期居住者都有车,有车就需要有公路。美国地广人稀,虽然很多人仍在市中心工作,可是人们往往偏向于选择安静的近郊居住。于是这里便存在一个交通上的时间问题。既然路程无法缩短,那么提升速度便成了唯一的方法。

在美国,出了门很快便能找到城市高速公路。这里的高速公路往往是贯穿全国的,分成两类,东西走向和南北走向。南北走向的公路编号为奇数,东西走向则为偶数。比如全长4000多公里的美国66号公路,东起繁华的芝加哥,直至加州的圣莫尼卡,横贯美国。在美国人开发西部的拓荒年代,它是唯一的、承担着由东向西输送经济、输送历史和输送文化重任的载体。

二、中国公路概况

在中国,自新中国成立以来,我国公路的发展大致经历了四个阶段,分别是建国初期、20世纪80年代后期、20世纪90年代后期以及新世纪至今。每个过程都有其特殊的历史背景,因此也就造成了各个时期道路发展的差异性。首先,在建国初期,由于新中国刚刚成立,各方面发展都很落后,尤其是经济实力跟不上,使得道路发展永远跟不上人们的需要;随着改革开放的历史进程,我国的经济在上世纪80年代取得了质的飞跃,但是公路依然是国家发展的“软肋”,远远跟不上经济发展的要求;进入20世纪90年代,我国政府注意到公路发展对国民经济发展的重要性,开始把公路建设放在国家发展战略的高度,并逐渐增加对公路建设的资金投入,使得我国公路发展进入了快速发展时期。

到了21世纪,我国公路发展开始进入鼎盛时期,根据交通部“十一五”发展规划,“十一五”期间全国国内所有具备条件的乡、镇95%通公路和80%的建制村通沥青(水泥)路;到2010年,全国公路总里程达到230万公里,全国高速公路通车里程达到6.3万公里,二级以上公路里程达到45万公里,县、乡公路达到180万公里;另一方面,我国80年代初期以来修筑的公路现在都进入大、中修期,每年约有10%的沥青路面需要翻修。同时,提出了交通实现新的跨越式发展的奋斗目标:到2010年使公路、水路交通对国民经济的制约状况得到全面改善,到2020年基本适应国民经济和社会发展需要。

三、中美公路的差异比较

或许有人觉得各个地方的高速公路都是一样的,其实不然。

1.美国高速公路和中国高速公路之间有显著差异,具体有以下四点:一是使用频率上的差距。之前笔者已经提到过,在美国,几乎每个人都有车,每个人都要用到高速公路。而在中国,只有出差、短途旅游或者短途运输时,人们才会用到高速公路,也就是说高速公路在中国并不是人们日常生活所必须的。二是费用收取的差异。在美国,高速公路基本是不收费的,建设修缮的经费来源道路信托基金。基金的78%来自民间汽车燃料税收,其余的22%来自重车的道路使用税和轮胎税。而国内高速公路之所以要收费是因为建设起步较晚,经验不足,成本过高。相较美国20世纪70年代初期已基本完成州际高速公路网的建设,直到20世纪90年代早期全国国道主干线系统规划才开始进行调研论证,确定下来已是90年代中期。三是道路基础设施的差异。在美国,一般的高速公路给人的感觉是朴素的。道路中间一定没有绿化带,道路两侧顶多只是简易的护栏。夜晚没有通明的路灯,也没有警示的荧光纸。然而在国内,或许同样是起步较晚的原因,于是建设标准也就高了。不仅是注重路面的质量,比如使用SIM改性沥青,并且有很多人性化的设计,比如紧急停车带以及紧急电话亭。四是维护方式的差异。美国高速公路的路面不是很美,上面有很明显的补丁。这里时常维修路面,并且效率很高。几个护栏圈出一块区域,几个工人,几辆专门的维修车,几个小时解决。高速公路仍然正常运行,只是某个区域的某一小段暂时不能使用了。而在中国,一旦维修路面,就会是从一个区间到另外一个区间的道路完全进行修补,而且各种重型机器全都出动,几乎是从新建一条高速公路,这样不仅耗时长,而且在修路的过程中,会使得可以行使的道路变窄,增加了交通事故发生的几率,也使得人们的行驶速度变缓,在一些较繁忙的路段,有时甚至出现连续堵车几个小时的情况。

2.中美高速公路在所选路段上也有很大差别。在美国联邦公路管理局出版的《灵活地建设高速公路》中明确指出:

(1)允许各州标准略有不同,可以灵活设定取值范围;

(2)当受环境条件严格约束时允许特殊设计;

(3)对规划阶段的决策需进行再评估;

(4)在需要时允许降低设计车速;

(5)维持现有道路的平、纵、横断面,仅仅进行重铺,修缮,复原三重改善;

(6)认真考虑可选择的指标,尤其对于景观道路;

(7)检查设计参数和指标在安全和运行中的效果。总章中的这七大准则是美国高速公路呈现出目前这种状态的本源。美国高速公路可能途经繁华的地方,可能是学校,可能是住宅区,可能是商场,也可能是工厂。美国高速公路也不是一望无际的笔直,可能有一小段上坡,也可能有几个大弯。美国高速公路的限速也不是一层不变的75英里每小时,可能70,也可能80。美国高速公路两旁的自然风光也是千变万化,可能是农场,可能是沙漠,也可能是河流。而在中国,我们所见到的高速公路全都是在非城市,非繁华地带,道路两旁也基本都是一成不变的绿色菜地或者是远方的高山,限速也都是120km/h,就像是有一个统一的高速公路模板一样。

另外,中美公路的分类也是不同的。在美国,公路可以粗略地被分成农村公路和城市公路,每一部分都有六个更精细的分类。农村公路分为农村州际高速公路、农村公路主干道、农村公路次干道、农村主要集散公路、农村次要集散公路、以及农村地方公路。而城市公路分为城市州际高速公路、城市高速公路、农村公路主干道、农村公路次干道、城市集散公路、以及城市地方公路。高速公路及主干公路需要有一定程度的出入控制,以提供最高服务水平,保证车辆能以最高速度不受干扰行驶最长的距离;集散公路的作用是聚集地方公路上的交通并连接到干线公路;地方公路则是为居民区或经济活动地提供出入。

全长163462英里的全美公路系统承担了美国公路交通的大部分流量。截至2006年底,尽管全美公路系统只占有总通车里程数4.0%,但其道路承担总行驶里程已达44.6%。州际系统是全美公路系统的核心,所有的州际高速公路都是全美公路系统的一部分。同时,占农村主要公路干线83.5%,城市高速公路的87.2%和城市主要公路干线的36.3%。从1997年至2006年,由于自驾游的兴起,州际高速公路的总行驶里程数呈现出迅速增长的势头。

据美国2008年国家公路状况报告,截至2006年底,美国的公共道路的通车总里程累计已达403万英里,其中农村地区占74.2%。虽然城市道路仅占里程总数的25.8%,但这些道路承担着的3万亿英里年总行驶里程数的66.3%。农村地方道路占总通车里程的50.8%,仅承担总行驶里程的4.3%。虽然州际高速公路仅占总通车里程的0.4%,却承担总行驶里程的16.3%。

在中国,根据行政等级,可以将公路分为国家公路、省公路、县公路,乡公路以及专用公路五个等级。一般会把国家公路和省公路称为干线,县公路和乡公路称为支线。在我国高速公路的开始兴起之前,国道是应用最广泛也是最重要的公路。国道一般是指那些具有全国性政治、经济意义的主要干线公路,包括重要的国际公路、国防公路,以及连接首都与各省、自治区首府和直辖市的公路,连接各大经济中心、港口枢纽、商品生产基地等的公路。

总体来说,我国公路在近些年已经有了较好、较快的发展,虽然和发达国家还有一定的差距,鉴于经验积累以及技术的进步,加以思想理念的创新与高瞻远瞩,展望我国公路事业的未来,定有着美好的明天。

参考文献:

1.尹俊涛,眭陵,谷云辉.2005-2006年度中国交通信息化发展扫描系列报道之四――公路信息化现状与年度进展[J].中国交通信息产业,2007(5)

2.高树亭.建设高效的道路运输管理信息化的探讨[J].公路运输文摘, 2004(11)

3.雷英.关于完善道路救援保障工作的思考[J].交通企业管理,2005(9)

4.美国2008年国家公路状况报告

5.姚永平.美国交通安全研究现状[J].内蒙古科技与经济,2001(4)

6.李剑锋.我国道路运输业的可持续发展之路[J].黑龙江交通科技,2009(9)

7.吴小萍.可持续发展战略指导下的轨道交通规划与评价方法研究[J].内蒙古科技与经济,2003(4)

推荐第4篇：中英文化对比论文

中英文化对比 结课论文

姓名：郑超学

学号：201401109033

学

院：机械自动化学院

专业班级：工业工程1402

中英文化对比

文化是一种社会现象，是人们长期创造形成的产物。确切地说，文化是指一个国家或民族的历史、地理、传统习俗、生活方式、文学艺术、行为规范、思维方式、价值观念等。不同的文化背影和文化传统，使中西方在思维方式，价值观念，行为准则和生活方式等方面也存在有相当的文化差异。在跨文化交际中，文化障碍会导致的信息误解，有时善意的言谈会使对方尴尬无比，礼貌的举止会被误解为荒诞粗俗，为了以后尽量避免因文化差异带来的尴尬和误解，所以这学期我选修了陈涛老师的中英文化对比这门课，下面是在学完这门课后，我对中英文化差异的一些理解。

例如在言谈方面，在中国对别人的健康状况表示关心是有礼貌的表现，但是西方人就不是这么认为了。当我们向西方人表示关切地问候时，他们可能反而觉得很不高兴。因为在他们看来这不需要任何人来指教。如果就某种小事给人以忠告，那显然是对其能力的怀疑，从而大大伤害其自尊心。另外中国人在饭桌上的热情好客经常被西方人误认不文明的行为。因为西方人认为客人吃多吃少完全由客人自己决定，用不着主人为他添酒加菜，而且他们认为饮食过量是极不体面的事情。类似的例子还有很多很多。这些都给我们的日常生活交际带来不少困惑。

同样的一件事物，不同的文化背景，看法也大相径庭。中国人的家庭观念很强，血缘关系，亲情伦理，在脑中根深蒂固，父母、子女始终是一家人。哪怕成家立业，另立门户，和父母仍不分彼此，中国人把赡养父母，侍奉父母，看作是自己应尽的责任。然而西方人却不同，子女一到成年，就会离巢而飞，父母不再抚养他们，而子女一旦独立，对父母家的事也不再理会，更别说赡养父母或几代同堂了。美国式的家庭结构比较简单：父母及未成年孩子，称之为核心家庭。子女一旦结婚，就得搬出去住，经济上也必须独立。父母不再有义务资助子女。这种做法给年青人提供最大限度的自由，并培养其独立生活的能力，但同时也疏远了亲属之间的关系。中国人如果一大家子来购物，父母为小孩买东西天经地义，已成年子女为父母代付钱也是理所当然。中国式的家庭结构比较复杂，传统的幸福家庭是四代同堂。在这样的家庭中，老人帮助照看小孩，儿孙们长大后帮助扶养老人，家庭成员之间互相依赖，互相帮助，密切了亲情关系。然而，这种生活方式不利于培养年青人的独立能力。老外却不同，父母、子女各自理财，互不搭界。现实中的美国，儿子可以是百万富翁，父母却照旧穷困潦倒，和中国人的“母以子贵”，“一人得道，合家升天”的中国传统实在天差地别。

中西方的文化差异还表现在很多方面。西方人崇拜个人奋斗，尤其为个人取得的成就自豪，从来不掩饰自己的自信心、荣誉感，以及在获得成就后的狂喜。相反，中国文化不主张炫耀个人荣誉，而是提倡谦虚。中国人反对王婆卖瓜式的自吹自擂，然而中国式的自我谦虚或自我否定却常常使西方人大为不满。在西方人看来，谦虚不仅否定了自己，还否定了赞扬者的鉴赏力。在自我中心与无私奉献方面，西方人自我中心意识和独立意识很强，他们认为自己应该为自己负责。在弱肉强食的社会，每个人生存方式及生存质量都取决于自己的能力，因此，每个人都必须自我奋斗，把个人利益放在第一位。他们也不习惯过问他人的事情，比较注重隐私。因此主动帮助别人或接受别人帮助在西方常常是令人难堪的事。因为接受帮助只能证明自己无能，而主动帮助别人会被认为是干涉别人的私事。中国人的行为准则是“我对他人，对社会是否有用”，个人的价值是在奉献中体现出来的。中国文化推崇一种高尚的情操——无私奉献。在中国，主动关心别人，给人以无微不至的体贴是一种美德，因此，中国人不论别人的大事小事，家事私事都愿主动关心，而这在西方会被视为“多管闲事”。

西方人平等意识较强，无论贫富，人人都会尊重自己，不允许别人侵犯自己的权利。同时，人人都能充分地尊重他人。很少人以自己显赫的家庭背景为荣， 也很少人以自己贫寒出身为耻，因为他们都知道，只要自己努力，是一定能取得成功的。然而中国人的传统的君臣、父子等级观念在中国人的头脑中仍然根深蒂固。父亲在儿子的眼中，教师在学生的眼中有着绝对的权威，家庭背景在人的成长中仍起着相当重要的作用。

西方文化鼓励人民开拓创新，做一番前人未做过的、杰出超凡的事业。而传统的中国文化则要求人们不偏不倚，走中庸之道，中国人善于预见未来的危险性，更愿意维护现状，保持和谐。 西方人十分珍视个人自由，喜欢随心所欲，独往独行，不愿受限制。中国文化则更多地强调集体主义，主张个人利益服从集体利益，主张同甘共苦，团结合作，步调一致。

西方人的婚姻观与中国人的婚姻观有着极大的不同。因为他们认为婚姻纯属个人私事，任何人不能干涉，同时婚姻不属于道德问题。一个人有权选择和最喜欢的人生活在一起，一旦发现现有的婚姻是一个错误，就有权作第二次选择。如果夫妇一方爱上了第三者，任何一方都不会受谴责。在他们看来强迫两个不相爱的人生活在一起是残忍的。而中国人的婚姻相对来说比较稳定。这是因为中国人把婚姻当作人生的头等大事，每个人都谨慎对待，认真选择，一旦决定了，就不会轻易改变。而且中国人一向把婚姻当作一个严肃的道德问题，喜新厌旧，或是第三者插足都被认为是极不道德的。

另外一个非常值得一提的就是教育体制的不同。西方教育仿佛大部分的时光都在讨论当中度过，而且上课时间很短暂，上课的时候还可以随时提问和解答，课后的作业也相当少。那么我们呢？很真实的说，看见的永远是忙碌的学生以及忙碌的家长。中国的古语是这样描述学习的：书山有路勤为径，学海无涯苦作舟。我们的祖先以高山和大海来比喻学习。于是我们自觉埋头学习。西方的课堂上，学生非常的自由，听不懂是老师的问题。在中国的课堂上我们是默默的聆听者和安静的模仿者。在教育方面，中西方在看重知识方面是不同的。中国教育重视基础知识的巩固，美国教育重视创造力的培养；中国教育注重知识的灌输和知识的熟练掌握，重视“精”和“深”，美国教育注重对知识的灵活应用，重视“广”和“博”。在教育这一方面，确实存在着很大的差异。

由于各种各样的原因，导致了中西方有诸如此多的文化差异，而文化差异又是跨文化交际的障碍。现代化的进程更加速了精神和物质产品的流通，跨文化交际成为每个民族生活中不可缺少的部分。了解中西方文化差异对于提高跨文化交际能力有着极其重要的意义，它能帮助我们正确理解西方人的言行，在交际过程中，充分了解对方，尊重对方的习俗，以取得最佳的交际效果。

通过这次选修课的学习，我认识到了文化差异的重要性。例如中西节日，宗教，生活方式的差异等等。陈老师通过电影以及中西比较的教案把中西差异讲解得非常具体，这对我的专业以及以后的学习都很有帮助，让我受益匪浅，如果以后有机会，我还会继续选修陈老师的课。

推荐第5篇：中西方饮食文化对比论文

上海海洋大学

题

目：学 院：专 业：班 级：学 号：姓 名：指导教师：完成日期：

学 期 论 文

浅谈中西方饮食文化差异 外国语学院 英语 13英语 1361322 马梦雅 Alan

2015年12月15日

CONTENTS

1.General differences between Chinese and Western diet habits………………………………………………………… 1

2.Differences in cooking methods.…………………………

4

3.Differences in table manners……………………………

5

4.Differences in tableware…………………………………

7

5.Differences in tea drinking………………………………

Differences between Chinese and Western diet habits

I.General differences between Chinese and Western diet habits.

Chinese diet focuses on“flavor” while Western diet cares more about “rational concept”,which means that Western food not only emphasizes the color,smell,taste,shape of food,but also pays attention to taking in proper nutrition ,even strees on the calories, vitamins, protein, etc.in each meal.Although the taste is similar, they often force themselves to eat——because food is rich in nutrition.This idea of diet is relevant to western philosophy,meta-physic,the main characteristic of western philosophy,which promoted the western culture’s development in some degree.However,philosophy also had side effect on diet culture.Though westerners focus on the choice of tableware,the use of spices,the quality of service,and no matter how high-grade and luxury the food is,generally speaking,beef is almost the same from London to New York.

In the other word,Chinese diet seems more complex.The vast

2 land,abundant resources,different climates in north and south are all resulted in completely different flavors of Chinese food.Chinese people in different places like sweet,salt,sour,spicy food,so it gradually formed four main cuisines：Sichuan,Qilu,Huaiyang,and Guangdong.Besides,eating different food in different seasons also is a characteristic of Chinese diet.Chinese pay attention to intake in proper time,for insurance,drink mung bean soup in summer to clear away heat rather than drink it in winter.

Western meals generally includes appetizer,soup,salad,seafood,meat,deert,despite also a little differences in French,Ruian,Italian,British diet habits.Meat, poultry dishes are the fourth western dishes, also known as the main dish.Meat dishes come from cattle, sheep, pigs, and other small parts of veal, the most representative is beef or steak.Beef can be divided according to their location:Sirloin steak (also known as sirloin steak), Philip steak, \"T\" type bone steaks,etc.Cooking methods commonly are roasted, fried, grilled, etc.Sauces of meat dishes are mainly using red wine sauce, black pepper sauce, mushroom juice.Salad,which are vegetable dishes in western food, described as a garnish.Salads usually with

3 lettuce, tomatoes, cucumbers, asparagus and other production.The main salad vinegar sauces are:French sauce, dry island juice, cheese salad juice and so on.After the main dishes,that is deert.Strictly speaking,it can be counted as the sixth dish.From the real sense, it includes all the main course after the food, such as pudding, pancakes, ice cream, cheese, fruit, etc.

If we metaphor banquets to dance,Chinese banquet is group dance and western banquet is social dance.It directly indicated that Chinese banquet put strength on whole table oriented while western banquet pot strength on the respect to individual.As we all know buffet,this kind of popular french dining form,it is convenient for one to one communication and it shows the western’s people oriented tradition.

II.Differences in cooking methods.Chinese cooking is an art,same to music, dance, poetry, painting.There are many cooking methods in Chinese cuisine: slip, stew, roast, boil, steamed, fried,, braised, grilled, stewed, caerole, etc.Chinese cooking methods are very complex, some dishes need a very long time to cook.For example,stewing chicken soup,which is a soup seems easy but if you want to cook it

4 well,it is difficult.First,the choice of chicken is neceary;then,how to wash the chicken and put what kind of spices also important;Finally,control the cooking fire properly.Paying attention to these three steps still does not means you can cook nice chicken soup,you should focus on every proce of dealing with the chicken.In contrast,western cooking methods seems easier than us,they usually roasted,boiled and fried,nothing else special.

Westerners love sugar, especially deerts.The amount of sugar use are often the same amount with flour , it is fearful,no wonder incidence of obesity in western countries much more higher than us.What’s more,the amount of sugar,flour and butter are clearly stated how many grams，even has the limitation of an egg’s size.The water put in food should be measured strictly by measuring cup.In western cuisine,the usage of salt is le than us.Instead,there is no general consolidation of flavor in China:southern people like sweet food,northern people like salt food,eastern people like spicy food and western people lie sour food.

III.Differences in table manners.

5 Though Chinese and westerners all eat food beside table,actually it has rather obvious differences.In China,people often gather around a table to have a meal no matter family daily diet or formal banquet.Proposing a toast and using chopsticks to pa food to guests are common behaviors to show respect in China,especially in some important traditional festivals,people more prefer in these way to celebrate, like Spring Festival,Mid-autumn Festival.Sitting around a table,sharing dishes are main characteristics of Chinese table manner.It makes some foreigners surprised even unacceptable to this tradition when they first came to China.In China,the position you seat indicates how important you are.Guest often seated on the seat opposite to the door,which is a respectable seat.And do not touch chopsticks before all people seated for it is impolite to eat in advance.If there are ladies together to eat,men should wait and sit until ladies sit down.Chinese and western banquets all emphasize seating arrangement.

Neverthele,in western countries,people used to aigning food firstly,each one has the same dish.In Western banquet, while everyone also sitting around a table, but everyone\'s food dish is in a single dish.No fixed seat, you can move around freely, not

6 only can fully meet the individuals’ food preferences, but also to facilitate the social relations, emotional and information communication.This habit fully reflects Westerners self-respect and emphasizes the individual\'s independence and autonomy.

IV.Differences in tableware.Comparing to Western tableware,Chinese tableware seems monotonous,main includes cups, plates, bowls, plates, chopsticks, spoons, etc.Western tableware are various：knife, fork, spoon, plate, cup,besides, knife divided into food knife,fish knife, meat knife,butter knife, fruit knife;fork divided into the food fork, harpoon, lobster fork.

The most basic differences between Chinese and western tableware are Chopsticks and knives,forks.Knives,forks and chopsticks, not only resulted in the differences in eating habits, but also affect the East and West people\'s life idea.Knife and fork influenced the group diet habit from the beginning,so westerners pay attention to independence, and their children often live alone when they grow up.Furthermore,Chinese used to eating with bowl to contain main food while westerners prefer

7 plates.In contrast,we use plates to push different dishes,they like used bowls to contain appetizers.The usage of plates is really wide in west,including main dish,deert.

In short, the westerner care more about food itself, while Chinese emphasize the form and the feeling of the dish.In recent years, with the improvement of life quality, Chinese catering equipment is becoming increasingly profeional, diversified, combine.

V.Differences in tea drinking.Tea originated from China,the earliest written records of tea can be traced back to second Century BC, then introduced to the west.Since 17th Century, tea had become popular among British aristocracy.After that, the British people took unique afternoon tea culture into china.However, tea drinking still has different customs in different culture background.

As everyone knows,tea is not the dominion of Chinese,westerners like tea too.However,there are very big differences:British people like putting sugar and milk into tea while Chinese people love drinking pure tea,no others

8 contained.In general,British people like to drink black tea and Chinese people like to drink green tea.Chinese and Western diet culture difference is obvious, and each has own advantages.With the acceleration of economic globalization and information exchange, Chinese and Western food culture will be integrated in the collision.

There are big differences in tea sets.Chinese tea sets often are ceramic products,such as,Pu\'er teapot（red-ware teapot）is breathable,it acquires boiled water to brew Pu\'er Tea,so red-ware teapot is the best choice of tea brewing.But western tea prefer silver products to brewing.The tea strainer is a neceity of western tea drinking.

推荐第6篇：中西方饮食文化对比论文

The Differences Between Chinese

and Western Food Culture

系 （部）：外语系 专 业 班： 姓 名： 学 号： 指导教师： 2011年 5 月

I

The Differences Between Chinese

and Western Food Culture 中西方饮食文化对比

I

Abstract

With the development of the economic globalization, China and the western countries are connected with each other more tightly and frequently.As an important entry point for people to exchange, it becomes very important to explore the differences between Chinese and western food.It can not only help us have a better understanding of the different culture of China and the west, come acro cultural barriers, but also can train people‟s adaptability of the communication in cro-cultural, effectively avoided the cultural misunderstanding when we have a communication.So analyzing and researching in the Western diet and cultural differences has a very important significance in Chinese food culture.It is very important to understand the differences.Moreover, it is useful to guide our practice when communicating with foreign friends.But actually the differences between Chinese and western food have a lot to do with the social and culture development.Culture is a kind of lifestyle that gathered together in a long time in the social life.And the life style including the ways of thinking and behavior.Although it has the universal features, it is also has the fundamental characteristics of the blood and geographic relationship, based on the formation of the nation as a whole unit.Food culture, the same to the nation as a unit, when a nation formed a fixed diet habit, diet tips and diet ideas, then become a culture.It is connected with the different geographical and historical conditions of China and the west.After all different cultures reflect different lifestyles.This paper tries to have inquiries into the difference from five aspects.It specifically exprees at the difference between Chinese and Western food objects,the difference in diet concept, differences in dietary patterns, the different utensils and etiquette, and differences in diet attribution.And this paper discues the main characteristics the differences between Chinese and western food culture and the reasons for the differences.After that the paper has given the table manners of American as a example, such as bread plates are to the left of the main plate, beverage glaes are to the right; salad fork, knife and soup spoon are further from the main plate than the main course knife, fork and spoon; deert utensils are either placed above the main plate or served with deert.General Behavior: Chew with your mouth closed.Do not talk at an exceively loud volume.Refrain from coughing, sneezing or blowing nose at the table and so on.In short, analyzing and researching in the Western diet and cultural differences has a very

I important significance in Chinese food culture.It is not only in understanding the purpose of this fact in itself, but also it is more importantly and useful to guide our practice, based on the awarene-raising, improve food structure, get rid of food abuse, improve the food quality and guarantee people‟s needs, in this kind of way to promote Chinese dining culture.

Key words: China and the west culture; difference; concept; comunication

II

摘 要

随着经济全球化进一步发展，中西方联系越来越频繁。作为打开中西方人民交流的重要切入点，探讨中西方饮食差异变的十分重要。其意义在于既能有助于深刻理解中西方文化中的不同之处，跨越文化交流障碍，又能培养人们在跨文化交际时的适应能力，有效地避免交际双方由于文化差异而产生的误会。因此，分析和研究中西方饮食文化的差异对中国的饮食文化而言具有很重要的意义。此外，它有助于指导我们的实践。但是不言而喻中西美食的差异与社会文化的发展密切相关。文化是人们在长期的社会生活中生活方式凝聚起来的总称，其中生活方式又包括思维方式和行为方式，虽然文化具有普遍性特征，但它最根本的特点是以血缘和地缘关系为基础，以名族为单位形成的整体。饮食文化，同样以名族为单位，当一个民族形成了固定的饮食习惯，饮食技巧和饮食观念后，便构成了一种文化。这也与中国和西方的不同地理和历史条件息息相关，毕竟不同的文化反映不同的生活方式。

本文将从以下五个方面来说明中西文化的差异，它具体体现在饮食观念的差异、饮食内容的差异、饮食方式的差异以及不同的餐桌礼仪等。而本文不仅探讨了中西方饮食文化上的差异，更简要分析了造成这一差异的原因。除此之外，本文还以美国的餐桌文化给出了一些例子，例如，面包盘是在主盘的左边，饮料在主盘的右边；沙拉叉、刀和汤匙要比主菜刀、叉、勺放的要远；甜点餐具上方放置或随主板送达。一般吃东西的时候嘴巴紧闭；不要在餐桌上咳嗽、打喷嚏或在餐桌上吹鼻子等或者过分大声说话。总之，分析和研究中西方饮食文化的差异对中国的饮食文化具有很重要的意义。它不仅在于了解这一事实本身，更重要的是用它来知道我们的实践活动，在提高认识的基础上，改善食品结构，革除餐饮弊端，提高餐饮质量，保证人们的生活需要，弘扬中华文化的餐饮文化。

关键词：中西方饮食文化；差异；观念；交流

III

Contents

1.

Introduction--------------------1 2.

The differences between Chinese and Western food culture--------------------------3 2.1 The difference between Chinese and Western food objects-------------------------- 4 2.2 The difference in diet concept ---------------------------- 6 2.3.Differences in dietary patterns-----------------------------9 2.4 The different utensils and etiquette----------------------11 2.5 Differences in diet attribution-----------------------------13 3.Nature of the differences between Chinese and Western food----------------------- 16 4.Conclusion --------------------17 Acknowledgements--------------19 References------------------------20

IV 1． Introduction

With the development of the economic globalization, China and the western countries are connected with each other more tightly and frequently.As an important entry point for people to exchange, food culture plays a very important role.The differences between Chinese and western food have a lot to do with the social and culture development.Culture is a kind of lifestyle that gathered together in a long time in the social life.And the life style including the ways of thinking and behavior.Although it has the universal features, it is also has the fundamental characteristics of the blood and geographic relationship, based on the formation of the nation as a whole unit.Food culture, the same to the nation as a unit, when a nation formed a fixed diet habit, diet tips and diet ideas, then become a culture.It is connected with the different geographical and historical conditions of China and the west.After all different cultures reflect different lifestyles.

In fact, food culture refers to the diet and lifestyle formed under certain historical or social conditions as well as the ideology formed on the basis of the aforesaid.During the history development of different countries and ethnic groups, different behavior patterns and lifestyles formed because the natural conditions and social environments were different.That is what people often refer to as customs.From the point of view of social observation and cultural study, the food culture of an ethnic group can fully embody its mentality, interest, belief and historical development.So, food culture can be seen as the most typical cultural feature of this ethnic group.The development and changes of food culture often reflect the evolution and progre of the society.The differences between Chinese culture and Western culture brought about the difference between their respective food cultures.Under two under different cultural backgrounds, obvious differences exist between Chinese food culture and western food culture, including perception, feature and the methods and materials.

Therefore, it becomes very important to explore the differences between Chinese and western food.It can not only help us have a better understanding of the different culture between China and the west and come acro cultural barriers, but also can train people‟s adaptability of the communication in cro-cultural, effectively avoided the cultural misunderstanding when we have a communication.So analyzing and researching in the Western diet and cultural differences has a very important significance in Chinese food culture.It is very important to understand the differences.Moreover, it is useful to guide

1 our practice when communicating with foreign friends.

This paper tries to have inquiries into the difference from five aspects.It specifically exprees at the difference between Chinese and Western food objects,the difference in diet concept, differences in dietary patterns, the different utensils and etiquette, and differences in diet attribution.And this paper discues the main characteristics the differences between Chinese and western food culture and the reasons for the differences.After that the paper has given the table manners of American as a example, such as bread plates are to the left of the main plate, beverage glaes are to the right; salad fork, knife and soup spoon are further from the main plate than the main course knife, fork and spoon; deert utensils are either placed above the main plate or served with deert.General Behavior: Chew with your mouth closed.Do not talk at an exceively loud volume.Refrain from coughing, sneezing or blowing nose at the table and so on.In short, analyzing and researching in the Western diet and cultural differences has a very important significance in Chinese food culture.It is not only in understanding the purpose of this fact in itself, but also it is more importantly and useful to guide our practice, based on the awarene-raising, improve food structure, get rid of food abuse, improve the food quality and guarantee people‟s needs, in this kind of way to promote Chinese dining culture.

2 2.The differences between Chinese and Western food culture

Once there is a saying that “Food is eating well-deserved for human life”, so food is an indispensable condition for the survival and development of human beings.There are two desires in life: one is feasting them to survive; and the other is the lust of men and women, which can help the mankind to carry on the family line.Facing the two desires, China pays more attention to the former, while the west tends to the latter.Such phenomenon affects the cultural trend.Diet is actually the contents of our daily lives, but why we call it culture? That is because the diet has special status in Chinese culture, and it also has a great distinction between China and the west.

As one of the world ancient nations, China‟s diet has a history almost as long as that of Chinese civilization.But in western countries, ancient thinkers devoted le attention to the food problem than the Chinese philosophers did, and there is even not aware of it to the “heaven” degree.With the opposite, they recognized and interpreted the world in the perspective of the lust or love of men and women more.Whether the awarene of original sin of Christianity, Adam and Eve legend, or ancient Greek philosophy (such as Plato‟s dialogue) who considered the personal relationships “love” as the love of ontology of beauty, and regarded it as a reality thinking of philosophy, all these ideas become the basis of western philosophers‟ cultural thoughts.All these had potential effects on the development of western culture and westerners‟ characters.

Receiving the influence of respective cultural tradition, the Chinese and western dietary culture has had different characteristics.The differences in concepts, targets, patterns, attribution and nature had reflected the different dietary culture in the different state characteristic; such characteristic has enriched the research value of dietary culture.Studying these cultural differences, we can find out a joint enhancing the communication between China and the west through a comprehensive study of the subject.It may be a great help to the communication of the Chinese and western cultures.

The dining product as a result of factor and so on region characteristic, climatic environment, manners and customs influences, will appear in raw material, the taste, the cooking method, the food habit varying degree difference.Was precisely because of these differences, the dining product had the intense localization.Between China and the West culture‟s difference has accomplished China and the West diet culture difference, but this kind of difference and gets along with people the philosophy from the West different

3 thinking mode.The Chinese pays great attention “the beauty to unite”, the westerner pays great attention “humanist”.

2.1The difference between Chinese and Western food objects

All diet cannot be done without vegetables.The word “dish” is for the sound in China, and it always has something to do with the plants.According to a survey of western plants scholar, there are 600 varieties of vegetables, six times more than in the west.In fact, the Chinese dishes, vegetable dish is usual food.Meat dish entered the normal diet only on holidays or higher living standards, so since ancient times, and there was a saying of “fresh vegetables”.“Common people eat fresh vegetables, fish only offered in the worship.” It is said that fresh vegetables are mainly to the civilian in general, only being able to eat meat only in worship.Vegetarian diet takes the dominant position in the normal structure.

Chinese people consider the vegetables as the main dish; it has inextricably linked with the advocacy of Buddhists.They deem animals as “people” and plants have “no soul.” So, they advocate vegetarianism.

Westerners do not seem to have such a good habit.They uphold a cultural origin of nomadic, seafaring nation.Living mainly by fishing and hunting, collection and planting are just the complement.There are more meat dishes in their lives.Feeding, clothing, and using are taken from the animals, and even Western medicine is derived from animals.When the westerners introduce the diet characteristics of their countries, they always feel that their diet is more reasonable on the mix of nutrition than China.The food industry is more developed, such as cans, fast food, although the taste is monotonous, but it saves time, and it also has good nutrition.Therefore, in their countries: people are generally healthier and taller than Chinese, and the people have strong shoulders and developed muscles; but Chinese people look short, their shoulders narrow and legs thin, their skin yellow and their body weak.The differences between Chinese and western food for Westerners to judge the merits of the two diet is not justified.Mr.Sun Yat-sen had profound study of the culture of food and incisive exposition.In his composing The Scheme for National Reconstruction, detailing the differences between Chinese and Western diet phenomenon, he concludes: “Chinese ordinary people drink green tea, and eat simple food such as vegetables and tofu for meal.Such kinds of food are the most healthy and beneficial according to the research

4 of hygienist.Therefore, the remote people in china, whose diet are far from meat and wine, always live a long life.Also China has a big population, and Chinese people have enormous power to resist disease, but they never try the non-diet.“He added:” The Chinese vegetarians all eat tofu.Tofu is expected as the real meat in plants, as it has the nutrition that meat has.It is the meat without toxic materials.So the Chinese are vegetarian used to be a custom without the promotion of scholars.It is also a custom that the European and American drink thick Wine, eat meat and fish.So there was science promotion before and a severe law later, such as the United States Prohibition.And the transfer will not carry out in a short time.“Mr.Sun‟s words tell out the scientific benefits of Chinese diet and disadvantages of Western diet.

According to the characteristics of the significant differences between Chinese and Western diet targets, the Chinese character is called the plant character, while the Westerners‟ is animal character.In response to the cultural behaviors, Westerners love adventure, exploration, conflict; but the Chinese people only like to live banally.According to American expert on folklore Ruth‟s opinions on the “cultural pattern” theory, Chinese culture is quite similar to the claical world Apollo-type character and Westerners‟ is similar to the modern world Faust-type.Indeed, the Westerners such as Americans in the development of the west, they put the whole family on the truck, and go out of the city in amid rumbling with the supplies.The Chinese people are always thinking about “home” and “roots”, despite the promotion that young people should take the world as home.But after a few decades, the overseas Chinese will come back to the mainland with crutch to seek their roots.This concept of return and such human spirit that can only be said to cooperate with the accumulation in the diet.Then it brings cohesivene to the Chinese nation and then makes the human folk full of energy.Westerners think the food can make them feel full.therefore, eats large piece of meat; and Chinese cuisine is the “Taste” of it.Therefore, China is also showing great cooking in the random selected materials: many Westerners as something thrown away, are excellent raw materials in China, foreign chefs can not handle things the hands of a chef in China to can be miraculous.Demonstration of Chinese food in the materials used for the extensive arbitrary.West China is more than reasonable with emphasis on nutrition, there are more developed in the food industry, such as canned food, fast food, etc., although the taste is monotonous, but to save time, and good nutrition.Therefore, the body of their country

5 than the Chinese people generally robust: tall, long legs, broad shoulders, muscular.The westerner thought that the cooked food is appeases hunger, therefore eats the bulk meat, the entire block chicken specially and so on “the hard vegetable”.But China‟s cooked food is “eats the taste”, therefore China cooks on the needed materials also appears the enormous capriciousne: Many westerners regard as abandons the things, in China is the extremely good raw material, the foreign chef is unable the thing which procees, as soon as arrives in the Chinese chef hand, may melt mysteriously decayed.Indicates the Chinese diet in needed materials aspectvastne capriciousne.Today people in the UK eat a more varied diet than ever before.As well as the regional diets of England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland the many immigrant communities have introduced their cuisines to the previously unadventurous Britons: Chinese, Greek, Indian, Italian, Thai, American fast foods such as pizza, hamburgers and fried chicken have to some extent displaced the traditional fast food of fish and chips.Because of the climate and the Germanic origins of many of its early people, the UK has been a traditionally beer drinking rather than a wine drinking country.Neverthele, in recent years, vineyards in the south of England have proved succeful.In the west of England the traditional drink is cider, rather than beer.Over Britain as a whole, however, the traditional drink is tea.

2.2 The difference in diet concept

The differences between Chinese and western diet cannot be ignored.Nobody will deny that the Western diet is a rational concept, regardle of the color of food, incense, flavor and shape, but nutrition must be aured.It cares about the intake of calories, vitamins, protein and so on during a day.Comparing with the Chinese diet, western diet tastes stereotyped, as simple as chewing the candle, but the sense tells them: We must eat them all because of the nutrition.And then they put it bluntly, just like refueling machine.The concept of western diet is compatible with the whole western philosophy.Metaphysics is the main feature of western philosophy.Such kind of philosophy brings vitality to western culture, so the natural sciences, psychology and methodology achieve a rapid development.In some other aspects, such philosophy proposition is a significantly obstacle, such as the dietary culture, which is the inevitable thing to drop behind, and just the metaphysics of methodology marks everywhere.In celebration, it strees tableware, strees the staple, strees the servings, and strees the color and shape mix of raw

6 materials.But no matter how luxurious the grade is; from Los Angeles to New York, only one taste of steak, it is no art to speak of.And as dishes, the chicken is chicken; steak is steak, even in groups, which are also conducted in a shallow dish.In a dish of “French Muttonchops”, one side is potato mud, and muttonchops sits next to it, another side is allocation of cooking beans, and plus a few tablets of tomato.Color is on clear, but the tastes of the various materials are separated, not to reconcile, and the entire flavor is also simple and clear.

Chinese diet is a sense of beauty diet.When people sample dishes, they often say this dish is “delicious”, and that dish is “not delicious”.But if you ask what is meant by “delicious”, why “tasty” and what are the aspects of “delicious”, I am afraid that it will be difficult to answer.This shows that which Chinese people hanker on a diet is just the “mood” that is difficult for one to say anything.Even using the “color, flavor, shape and implement “which people often said to make the” realm “reification, I am afraid it is still difficult to crown all.

The beauty pursuit of Chinese cuisine is clearly overriding the rational pursuit.This concept of diet is also coinciding with the traditional Chinese philosophy.Chinese philosophy as a representative of oriental philosophy, its distinguishing features is the macro, visual, vague and evasive.Chinese cooking method is to reconcile, and the ultimate goal is to reconcile out of a beautiful taste.The main stre is measure and the overall co-ordination.It contains a wealth of dialectics of Chinese philosophy, and all these depend on the degree of the wonderful flavor and harmony of dish.The ever-changing within degrees decides the changeable of Chinese food, and it also decides the characteristics of Chinese food as well as the characteristics on each of the chefs.Chinese pay great attention to “the taste” of the food, while the Westerns has a kind of rational diet idea.No matter food color, smell and tastes, shape how, but the nutrition needs certainly to obtain the guarantee, is fastidious about one day to absorb how many quantity of heat, Vitamin, protein and so on.Even if the taste is stereotyped, must certainly eat, because has the nutrition.This diet idea is adapts with the Western entire philosophy system.Metaphysics is the Western philosophy main feature.The western philosophy studies the object principle of for the thing, principle of the thing often is the metaphysics principle, the metaphysics principle links up mutually, in constipation forming philosophy.This philosophy the culture brings the vitality for the West, caused it in the natural sciences, the psychology, the methodology to realize the development which

7 progreed by leaps and bounds.But in another some aspects, this philosophy advocated that the big earth played the hindrance role, like diet culture.At the banquet, may be fastidious about the tableware, is fastidious about the needed materials, is fastidious about the service, is fastidious about raw material of the vegetable shape, color aspect matching; But no matter how luxurious upscale, from Los Angeles to New York, the beefsteak only then one kind of flavor, does not have art to be poible to say.As the cooked food, the chicken is the chicken, the beefsteak is a beefsteak, even if has matching, that is also carries on the plate, “the Buddhist ritual procedures mutton chop”, puts the mashed potatoes at the same time, side relies on the mutton chop, in addition matches at the same time boils the green beans, adds several piece of tomato then to become.In the color contrasts distinctively, but each raw material is mutually irrelevant in the taste, is well distributed, each is each taste, simple perspicuity.

The Chinese is takes seriously “to eat” very much, “the food is what matters to the people” this proverb showed that we eat look equally and the day are important.Because our nationality for several thousand years are in the low productive forces level, the people always cannot eat to the full, therefore only will then have one kind uniquely to eat can regard in all diet culture, I thought that this will be probably stems from one kind of survival to need.If one culture eats regards as the most important matter, will then present two kind of phenomena: On the one hand will eat this kind the function will display the acme, not only maintenance survival, also will use its health maintenance, this will also be” uses medicines to build up one‟s health was inferior the food will make up”cultural base; On the other hand, to eats exceive takes seriously, will cause the human to esteem to the delicacy the pursue.

In China‟s cookery, achieves the acme nearly to the delicacy pursue, down to makes a living the Chinese to the overseas, take the restaurant as industry, has become us the basis which settles down and gets on with life in the world! It is a pity, when we take the pursue delicacy the first request, we have actually neglected food most basic nutritional value, our many traditional food must pa through overheated fries in oil boils with the long time soft fire dumpling, causes the cooked food the nutrient content to receive the destruction, many nutrient contents lost in the proceing proce.Therefore as soon as speaks of the nutrition question, in fact touched the Chinese diet culture biggest weakne.The folk has a slang: “the food is what matters to the people, the food take the taste as first”.Is this kind to the delicacy the pursue, poured causes us to neglect the real sense

8 which ate meal.

The Chinese when tastes the cooked food, often will say that this TV dinner “delicious”, that vegetable “is not delicious”; However if further asked that anything calls “delicious”, why “delicious”, “delicious” in where, was not perhaps easy to talk clearly.This indicated that what Chinese to diet pursue is one kind explains “the ideal condition” with difficulty, even if is usually called “the color, smell and tastes with the people, the shape,” to come this kind “the boundary” the concrete application, perhaps was still very difficult to cover.the reason that the China diet has its unique charm, the key lies in its taste.But the delicacy production, lies in well distributed, must make food this taste, heats up the later ripe taste, in addition the ingredient and the supplementary material taste as well as the seasoning compromise the taste, interweaves the fusion coordinated in the same place, causes it to supplement mutually, the cooperation seepage, is in perfect harmony, in you have me, in me has you.

The Chinese cooking is fastidious compromises the beauty, is the Chinese cooking art concise place.A vegetable shape and the color are the external things, but the taste is actually the intrinsic thing, heavy intrinsic, but decorates the semblance not desirably, but the heavy cooked food‟s taste exposes the cooked food not exceively the shape and the color, this is precisely the Chinese US diet view most important performance.In China, the diet beautiful pursue has crushed the rationality obviously, this kind of diet view and the Chinese tradition‟s philosophic thinking also tallies.As Eastern philosophy representative‟s Chinese philosophy, its outstanding feature is macroscopic, direct-viewing, is fuzzy and is evasive.The Chinese dish manufacture method is the well distributed large ding, is finally must compromise one happy taste.This is fastidious is a discretion, is the overall coordination.It has contained the Chinese philosophy rich diagnostic method thought that all take the vegetable taste happy, harmonized ever changing as, within had decided Chinese dish enriching and was rich in the change, has decided the Chinese dish vegetable department‟s characteristic and even each chef‟s characteristic.

2.3 Differences in dietary patterns The Chinese and Western dietary patterns can be very different, and these differences affect the national character.In China, a celebration, no matter what, there will be only one form, as sitting together, sharing one feast.Banquet uses round table, which has

9 created a unity of form, which is courtesy, comity atmosphere.Cate are in the center of the table.It is the objects for people to appreciate and taste, and it is also an intermediate of communication.People toast each other and share the vegetables, which reflect the mutual respect between people in the face of the good things, also show the virtues of comity.Although from the health point of view, this approach has obvious deficiencies, but it is in our national “happy” mentality, it reflects the claical Chinese philosophy area of “and” impact for future generations.It is helpful to facilitate the collective emotional exchanges and consequently difficult to reform.The western-style banquets, although the food and wine are very important, but in fact they are just foil.The core of Banquet is friendship, by the conversation with the guests who sitting next to achieve the purpose of recreation.If making an analogous compare between the recreation of the banquets and dancing, it may be said that the Chinese banquet is like group dance, and the western banquet is like men and women dancing.This shows that communication purpose of Chinese banquet and western banquet are very obvious.Only the Chinese banquet is more popular in the communion, but western banquet shows guests reflected in the friendship between neighbors.The more obvious differences between Chinese and western dietary patterns is buffet dinner which is popular in the West.This method is to display all food, and everybody is picking not fixed in his or her places to eat.They walk freely.This approach would provide the emotional interaction between individuals; they never need to put every word on the table.This also shows a western personality and self-respect.However, all the eating without jamming lacks the real affective tone like the Chinese people.Some people want to put the buffet in the Chinese food, but I think it is not feasible.Zhang Qijun in the Principles of Cooking tells us the main reason: “First, buffet is not like drinking tea.Drinking tea is just the thing to you before you choose, and displayed in the cafeteria there is a large number of food to eat, so when you want to have it, it is cold yet.Chinese cuisine will serve hot, if cold, nothing to eat.Secondly, buffet dishes only can do hard dishes and beneficial dishes.Then you can acce for large plots.And those most representative of the Chinese culinary arts, such as the tender and lighter dishes, are not in this show.Third, the buffet can do stewing pot; it means a big pot in terms of food.Any sophisticated cooking of a dish can only be cooked in a pot at two most, and it is not able to cook the dish for dozens of people.So it will not be delicious, never talking of the taste.Under such circumstances, it is clear that the use of buffet dinner will deny Chinese

10 culinary arts.“The Chinese people are drinking around the table to show harmony and unity, but the buffet has broken such pattern.It raises the personal independence and self-mentioned at the first place.This is the opposite of the scale of the great unity of all Chinese traditional culture.

2.4 The different utensils and etiquette

2.4.1 Cutlery to use

Chopsticks and knife and fork is the basic difference between Chinese and Western table manners.Zhejiang University, Profeor Yu Xiu ling: East and West appear chopsticks and knife and fork eating the different tools and environment relationship.Bamboo chopsticks to have originated in the place.Northern China

wood, bamboo from southern China, ancestors from local materials, bamboo and wood have become the most primitive materials chopsticks chopsticks.The

emergence of a knife and fork than chopsticks much later.According to research by Profeor Yu Xiu Ling, the original knife and fork and European origin living in ancient nomadic habits, they immediately carry knives of life, often cooked the meat, cut off to eat.About 15 centuries before and after the meal in order to improve posture, Europeans used the double-pointed cro.To the 18th century only the tip of a fork with four forks.Knife and fork and chopsticks, not only brought different eating habits, also affected the Eastern and Western concepts in life.Profeor Yu Xiu Ling, eating into the system will inevitably bring a knife and fork, and chopsticks sitting around the table with family members must dine match.Beginning point of Western food, which derived from the West pay attention to independent, children grow up into the world after the independence of ideas and habits.The chopsticks brought together meals daily, highlighting the young and old sat together in the family unit, so that Asians have a relatively strong family values.When I reminded in the use of Chinese and Western dishes have different specifications.If not play with chopsticks when eating Chinese food (to them when the drumstick is a very rude way), but can not use chopsticks pointing to the person or make gestures.Of course, absolutely can not suck or the chopsticks chopsticks inserted in the rice, which is taboo (which seems to funeral incense is considered unlucky.) When using the knife and fork there are some taboos.Such as holding a knife and fork when not meddling.To speak or talk, knife and fork on the plate should only decency.Avoid using their own utensils for others bowl.Do not bend over

11 picking up utensils fall.Do not cut off a good meal products, especially products with a soup meal, to eat a piece-by-all and more.

2.4.2 Seating arrangements Western formal banquets are particular about the seating arrangements.Traditional Chinese dinner with square table.Door is on both sides of the partial blocks.Treat, the elderly, people with high status of the guest of honor sit or seat, men and women who sat down the owner or Peiqia Block, and the remaining customers in order to sit side seat.Westerners treat with a long table, men and women sit in the owner at both ends, then the guest of honor men and women and the general order of the guests seating arrangements, that men and women interspersed arrangement, subject to seat the hoste, the guest of honor sitting in the top right of the hoste, Main Binfu the top right of man of the house to sit, pay attention to “ladies first” Western gentleman, will show the attentions of the ladies.In China, respect for the left and right for the times; on respect, under second; in respect, partial for the times.In the West, respect for the right, left for the times.I particularly Western seat etiquette tips: The most graceful way is seated from the left seat.Do not put your elbows on the desktop, not Rocker foot.Can not withdraw in the middle of the meal (if things do need to leave should be whispered about greeting guests.) Dinner, sit up straight, back straight, neck elongation.Depend on the upper arm and back to back, abdomen, and a table for about a fist distance.Remember to head high with food, in the face of the food into the mouth, it is neceary to the food to the mouth to mouth opinions on the food rather than bent.

2.4.3 Dining atmosphere Trouble on the table of Chinese and Western food on the table is static and the most fundamental difference between Chinese and Western table manners.Table climate differences, the Chinese table action, the Western table static.Chinese food for life to matter to music, show and great, the atmosphere of excitement is often breathtaking.Chinese people get a table, then in full flight, with each other for food, drinks upon, enjoy, delicacies, delicious cuisine.Banquet this way in order to reflect the enthusiasm and sincerity the owner, the table reflects the excitement of patrons from the heart‟s delight.This “trouble” to some extent reflects the Chinese family from the warm, neighborhood harmony, unity and people‟s “Harmony.” Westerners have a table to sit quietly dedicated

12 to cutting their own dinner.Soup can not make noise, such as hot soup can be cooled before eating, do not blow through your mouth.Shut up when eating chewing.Do not lick their lips or smack sound.Guests can dine and talk about, but not only with a few acquaintances talk.If guests do not know about, they may first introduce myself.Others can not take the mouth interrupted his speech.Keep the volume level of the other party can hear.Chewing of food do not speak, even if someone speak to you, have to wait to answer after swallowing.

2.5 Differences in diet attribution There are differences between Chinese and western diet attribution.Western diet tends to be scientific and rational, but the Chinese diet tends to be art and sentimental.During the underdevelopment era of diet, these two trends have only one aim – to live and never be hungry.And when the dietary culture is full developed, the tendency is shown in this different purpose: the former is in the development of nutrition, the latter is expreed as the stre on the flavor.

Cooking is from diet; the origin of food is a life-sustaining nutrition.Therefore, the focus of western diet is only the extension of the original diet practicality.The emphasis on the flavor of Chinese cuisine caters the diet to the arts field.Mencius said: “Flavor in the mouth has the same interests”.“Interests” points out the key from nutrition to arts.Such interests are from the meaning of flavor.In China, eating is not meant to have enough.It is about nutrition.Sometimes we eat though we are full.We are overloaded with food.Why? Saying bluntly, it is to appreciate the art of cooking; and not saying it nicely, it is the temptation of “delicious” for the enjoyment of taste.Watching the rational diet in the west, it is not only waste, but also harmful to the men body.In fact, the herbalist doctors are also opposed to overeat, claiming “dietary restraint”.But the dialectics tell us Chinese people, occasionally the “overload” and once we are comfortable, we can absorb and store.Qigong masters at the situation of non-eat and non-drink at home is still in good spirits, although their weight loses, but it is intact on the human body; and it is the consumption of such storage.Herbalist doctor also advocates winter nutrition.It is also in order to store for keeping energy in the coming year.Chinese people‟s views are more dialectical than the western diet propositions opposing overloaded stubbornly.It is closer to the science truth, and has been checked up for thousands of Chinese medicine practice.Psychologists Spinoza said: “The desire is human nature than other.” The human desire for

13 delicious is the nature of human beings which is fully reflected.In proce of the taste enjoyment, it is imbued with the shares of élan vital.Life should not be a yoke, but also not be a repreed desire.We can not use the absolute reason to regulate the behavior of all people.On the diet, it is not the purpose of “science” and “nutrition” and some delicious are excluded from the table outside.Only delicious things can satisfy people‟s appetite and then give the arrival of physical and mental pleasure.Chinese diet shows the transformation about sentimental form to rational form from the old days till now, and cause the Chinese dietary culture brimming with imagination and creativity.The sensibility of Chinese culinary culture is a sublime sensibility, infiltrating rational sense, also the realization of the nature of life.In addition, gustatory enjoyment is one of the main objectives pursued of the human struggle.The art of Chinese cuisine is compatible with the development of human history in the proce, more scientific than the progre of the western diet.As Zhang Qijun in his work Cooking Principles said: “The United States is unprecedented least affluent society, but till today, in eence it is still „food to eat‟ stage.There are still some distances from entering the realm of art.” In China, The role of diet goes beyond the subsistence of existence, which is designed not only to have the physical presence, but also to meet people‟s spiritual needs for pleasure.It is positive to enrich people‟s life performance, and fine arts, music, literature, etc.which have the same level of significance to the improvement of life.

Chinese diet tends to artistry, the so-called art realm.In fact, that is a complete leap from the neceity to freedom.It is characterized by randomne.For example, similar dishes, because of the differences in area, season, target, function and grade, it has different treatments on operation.Set braised fish for example, in winter deep colors are advised and tastes are advised strongly, but in summer it should be light color and flavor.And for the people in Zhejiang province, their dishes can be put up more sugar in the braised fish, and if facing Chuanxiang customers it should allocate spicy.It easy to see that if out of the arbitrary, there would be no cooking variety; we will lose the unique charm of Chinese cuisine.Whereas in the west, dishes in different areas and different seasons and facing different customers, is the same flavor, no changes.Although it is the most valuable banquet, which is just tableware known, conducted layout, and the vegetables remain the same as before.

Moreover, as for materials, westerners think the food is to eat, eating special “hard vegetables” such as large piece of meat, chicken block.China‟s cuisine is “taste”.The

14 Chinese cooking in materials has shown tremendous arbitrarine: The things which many, many westerners consider as disposable things in China are excellent raw materials.Foreign cooks are not able to deal with things, but in the hands of a Chinese chef, it can get a magic result.Chinese cuisine is evident in the wide use of materials.

Besides skills, an excellent cook, of course, can do more complicated dishes.But facing the real simple materials and condiments, the cooks are often able to produce delicious flavors.It is the arbitrarine of skills.In the surface, the menu seems to be scientific.Westerners always use menu to buy ingredients to produce dishes, but in comparison, it is the machinery, and often powerle facing the complex specific situation.Of course, this mechanical science is still can be said as science, but it is primitive science, and it is not the complete science.Chinese cooking talks about artistry, but it still fit the requirements among the ever-changing, it can be said such science is a real science.The characters of western food which lacks nutrition and artistic atmosphere have great distinction from the artistic realm of Chinese cuisine.

15 3.Nature of the differences between Chinese and Western food

Differences in the nature of the Chinese and western diet are inosculated with the respective lifestyle and the pace of life.In the west, people do the duplication of pipeline operations, and implement piece-wage system, so the paces of their lives are so fast.People fall under the mechanical method either intentionally or unintentionally, and believe that “Work is work, and game is game.” Mechanical lives led to onene of diet or a single blind about diet, and eat beefsteak and potatoes every day.Monotonous diet is the same as work, for which the purposes is to fulfill the “incident”, naturally with no interests, and all these have no word in terms of taste.But China is not, “The game is work, and the work is of a game”.Such life manner is also emerged in diet.A baker sells bread in the street, he likes using the rolling pole to beat the chopping board rhythmically when they knead flour.When the cooks fry a dish, even beating scoop, they also care the sense of rhythm during cooking.These would not work for any conveniences, but it increases the interests of workers.Only in such an atmosphere work will be meaningful, and it will have more creativity and artistry of Chinese cuisine.

There still exist various differences between Chinese and western dietary cultures.But with the development of cultural communication between China and the west, along with the strengthening of communication between China and the west, China has imported various kinds of western food, known as the “KFC” “DICOS”, “McDonald”.This marks a new western dietary culture exchanges and infiltration.We believe that with the development of society, the cultural differences between Chinese and western dietary will no longer be the difference.

16 4.Conclusion

Diet is absolutely neceary in the life of mankind, and even in the existence or development.Because of the differences between Chinese and western cultural traditions, the Chinese and western dietary cultures are different in concept, target, pattern, attribution and nature.We study these differences and then find out the points that can be digested, in order to facilitate the communication about cultures between China and the west.Western culture (in particular, modern American culture) can be said to be male and female culture.But the Chinese culture can be said to be a dietary culture.“As the reason of the cultural traditions, the western lives tend to men and women , Chinese people are dumping guidance on life in the restaurants.Thus the diet is rich in culture.Food culture in the west is not developed enough, but this underdevelopment itself is the result of the development of a culture, so it is still significant to study the dietary cultures of Chinese and Western diet.By the analysis of the differences between Chinese and western dietary cultures, we can comprehend the respective cultural traditions of China and the west.And we can also improve and create the culture of China.In short, analyzing and researching in the Western diet and cultural differences has a very important significance in Chinese food culture.It is not only in understanding the purpose of this fact in itself, but also it is more importantly and useful to guide our practice, based on the awarene-raising, improve food structure, get rid of food abuse, improve the food quality and guarantee people‟s needs, in this kind of way to promote Chinese dining culture.By the text from this thesis, we can easily find that there still exist various differences between Chinese and western dietary cultures.But with the development of cultural communication between China and the west, along with the strengthening of communication between China and the west, China has imported various kinds of western food, known as the “KFC” “DICOS”, “McDonald”.These mark a new western food culture exchanges and infiltration.

The impact brought about by economic globalization is stronger and deeper than the internationalization.Economic globalization is a double-edged sword, on one hand, it brings the vitality of economic growth, and on the other hand, the dominant culture is put into other countries through strong economic and infiltrated every corner of the globe.Therefore, the cultural communication focus on how to aimilate advantages of the other countries‟ culture, abandon its shortcoming, and learn how to transform and make it

17 localized, all countries need to study the iue.So in the face of the dietary cultural exchange problems between China and the West, we should find each other‟s advantages and draw the mutual advantages, as China can learn from the point that western diet strees nutrition match, and make the Chinese cuisine more outstanding.

China is a country with an ancient culture and is rich in cultural traditions.She feeds the 1.3 billion Chinese people, and Chinese culture is very inclusive; in the course of development it absorbs a lot of different cultures.Moreover, now China does more efforts to draw all the outstanding achievements in the World.China‟s reform and opening up policy create the conditions on international relations and cultural exchanges.We need to use such an opportunity to absorb the excellent cultures from other countries, to develop and create China‟s new culture.

Acknowledgements

My deepest gratitude goes first and foremost to Mi Tu Huiqin, my supervisors, for her constant encouragement and guidance.I would not have survived all work without the constant support that she gave me.She has walked with me through the first stage of writing this paper.Without her consistent and illuminating instruction, this paper would not have reached its present form.I would also like to extend my sincere thanks to all my teachers at the English Department.Thanks to their instructive guidance and comprehensive education during the four year‟s college life, I can acquire the opportunity to further study my English.

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推荐第7篇：中西方文化对比论文

世俗与宗教——中西社会习俗文化比较

摘要：当今中国早已跻身全球化语境的时代。信息网络技术把整个世界变成了“地球村”，中西文化交往的规模和深度都在不断发展。跨文化交际中，由于文化差异而导致的信息误解屡见不鲜。中西文化博大精深，社会习俗文化渗入到生活的各个方面。 关键词：跨文化交际 中西方社会习俗文化 差异

前言：社会习俗文化包括社会生活礼仪与节庆、生活方式等，是各国社会经济、政治生活及历史文化传统的反应，深刻揭示着民族文化的基本精神和价值观念。由于社会习俗范畴广泛，本文仅从觐礼、婚礼、葬礼、节日四个方面来比较中西方文化，以窥全豹。鉴于中国式宗教意识淡薄的国家，社会习俗文化是世俗的，而西方国家基督教影响甚深，故社会习俗文化的宗教色彩深刻。

一、觐礼：下跪与屈膝

在古代中国一向是皇权至上的社会。因此，古代觐见皇帝时都要行下跪的礼仪，以表示对高高在上的皇权的尊重。这与中国自给自足的小农经济为主体的农业文明有着千丝万缕的联系。中国高度集中的权力，使皇帝认为，普天之下，莫非王土，率土之滨，莫非王臣。中国人有中国是世界的中心，华夷有别，万方来朝的虚荣心理。而西欧则相反。在西方，王权有限，对国王来说，“我的附庸的附庸不是我的附庸”，加上基督教的普世性，教皇才是权力的中心。西方国王与贵族大臣的契约关系并非像中国古代的“君为臣纲”的不平等关系，因此出现了双方觐见礼的冲突。

二、婚礼：红色与白色

在人类所有的社会行为中，婚姻是一项非常重要的活动。作为社会习俗的婚礼，是最重要的礼仪。然而由于民族文化的不同，婚礼的具体形式与文化内涵也就不同。具体上说，中国古典式的婚礼是“红色”的婚礼；西方古典式的婚礼是“白色”的婚礼。

（一）中国婚礼的红色寓意

中国古典婚礼给人印象最深的就是男女双方全家族的盛大庆典，以及到处贴的红双“喜”，一对新人着红衣、红裤（红裙），新娘披着红盖头，桌上点着红蜡烛，床上摆着大红枣。在婚姻不能自主的封建时代，红红火火的婚礼主要不是对新婚夫妇个人的祝贺，而是对家族兴旺的集体联欢，对封建义务的重申。婚礼仪式中的“拜天地”的安排，但这里的“天”只是伦理化的“天”，是重申对天经地义的封建礼法的遵守承诺，完全是世俗性的行为。

古代中国的婚俗文化主要有两大特点。一是“父母之命，媒妁之言”。包办婚姻作为一项被古代中国人民长期接受的习俗，虽然在现代人看来是不合理的，但在流动性较小的农耕社会中也有其存在的合理性。结婚也要按照风俗履行必要的程序。定亲和迎亲这两种程序在不同程度上历来为人们所遵守，甚至在当代的中国也仍然会有体现。其次“明媒正娶，大办婚事”是中国又一重要的风俗。中国婚礼大张旗鼓的操办，其社会意义在于“公示”，以此获得“本地认同”，从而产生“本地身份”。这些对于地位卑贱低微的女性来说具有极其重要的意义。“明媒正娶”的本质同样仍然是为家族共同体的集体荣光增加一道红色的光彩。

（二）西方婚礼的白色意蕴

西方婚礼给人们最深刻的印象是庄严的教堂和白色的婚纱。白色的婚纱在西方象征纯洁、忠诚、美丽。在西方人看来，婚姻是神圣的，西方的婚礼多灾教堂举行，由神父主导婚礼进行，庄严的婚礼誓词是婚姻当事人对对方终生的承诺，也是对上帝尊重的保证。婚礼沉浸在一篇宗教的圣洁气氛当中。

西方社会婚姻制度也是某种社会习俗的产物，尤其受到基督教的深刻影响。当我们把视角投向基督教，不得不提到《圣经》。《旧约》里亚当和夏娃的故事可谓人人皆知，亚当和夏娃由于偷吃了伊甸园里的果子而被上帝逐出。尽管上帝将人逐出伊甸园作为一种惩罚，然而他并没有拆散他们，而是令他们今生今世要相互扶持。其目的在于完成这种爱，在于延续生命。上帝将亚当和夏娃带到一起，从而设立了婚姻，那时婚姻是神圣的，基督徒对这种婚姻的看法也赋予了荣耀和尊严。白色的婚礼使得西方婚姻获得了圣洁的认证。

三、葬礼：厚葬与薄葬

（一）中国的厚葬风俗

中国古代素有厚葬的传统。中国各地博物馆现存的历史文物中，从历代墓葬出土的殉葬品占有相当比例。秦始皇陵出土的兵马俑、长沙马王堆汉墓出土的木乃伊、西安汉阳陵出土的佣群......殉葬品之多、之繁、之奢华，令人叹为观止。这些无不显示着中华厚葬之风。不仅皇家贵族如此，中国民间也不逊色。虽然民间不会想皇族那样奢华，但也不敢怠慢。直至今天，尽管社会发达，大办丧事的习俗仍让留存了下来。现在不仅焚烧纸人，还焚烧纸马、纸电视、纸汽车、纸别墅。

中华厚葬之风可以追根溯源到儒家所提倡的“孝”道。所谓的“孝”道，实质上并非真正对“人”的尊重，而是对规范——“礼制”的无条件服从。通过孝道来凝聚族人，以巩固社会秩序。而对死人的孝就体现在丧葬的厚薄和质量上。

中华厚葬风俗文化的世俗性关键在于中国人“视死如生”的看法，即把死人当作生人来供奉。丧礼设酒食、供品以祭，用整头宰杀的牛、羊、鸡等加上各种新鲜的水果做祭品。从常识知道，死人是不会享用这些供品的，只是人们心理上认为原来的人在另一个世界仍然会享受得到，他们按世俗的办法祭奠供奉死人。

（二）西方的薄葬风俗

通过欧洲的电影电视，许多人对西方葬礼最深刻的印象莫过于十字架和黑色的丧服。墓地也十分简单，一个两米左右的长土坑。下葬时人们只是向墓碑献鲜花，不见有其他的殉葬品。参加葬礼的是死者的亲属与生前挚友，但不会是像中国那样的家族大聚会。西方的丧葬礼仪很简单，其形式基本上属宗教式的。葬礼与葬礼弥撒一般由神父议定，包括祈祷词和经文，然后是圣餐，最后为告别仪式。葬礼过程主要是为死者祈祷，祝灵魂早升天堂，解脱生前痛苦。整个葬礼庄严肃穆，简单薄葬。

这种习俗主要还是受到基督教文化的影响。基督教将每一个灵魂直接和上帝发生关系，崇尚灵魂升华，因为肉体是肮脏的、有罪的。因此西方葬礼风俗重精神性的超升，而对肉身简丧薄葬。

四、节日：人节与鬼节

民族民间节日是重要的社会风俗文化。中国社会是宗教意识很淡薄的社会，梁漱溟先生说过：中国人的人生是“无宗教的人生”。所以中国传统节日多是世俗性的，是人节。随着全球化的深入，当代青年人也喜欢上了洋节。西方社会的基督教文化影响较深，宗教氛围浓厚，故西方节日宗教性强，是鬼节。但随着社会的现代化进程，西方的宗教性节日也已日趋世俗化。

（一）中国节日的世俗性——人节

中国的传统节日大都与农业活动的节气有关，而农业活动又离不开家庭成员之间的集体协作，所以传统习俗要么与时令有关，要么与家族祖先祭拜有关。如在以团圆欢庆为核心的春节，仍要在饭前拜祭祖先，烧香烧纸钱。中国的传统节日提供了“天——地——人”合一的运行节律的时令节点，这些都是世俗性人的节日。传统节日经过几千年传承下来，不仅是译为它的一些娱乐活动，更是一种文化现象，是民族情感、民族精神和民族信仰的体现，值得我们珍惜和传承。

（二）西方节日的宗教性——鬼节

基督教自罗马帝国成为国教以来，对西方社会的影响是方方面面的。基督教不止是一种观念体系，也是一种生活方式。以礼拜日为例。礼拜日也叫安息日，按照《圣经》的说法，上帝工作了六天，第七日休息。因此，现代的西方人在基督教的影响下，每个礼拜日都去教堂做礼拜。古代西方的节日也是极具宗教色彩的，以复活节为例。复活节原本是说耶稣被钉死在十字架上三日后复活，向信徒展示他作为复活的救世主，也让基督徒坚定信念不惧怕死亡。然而现代社会中的复活节几乎丧失了宗教意义，越来越为人们所淡忘。“假日”也是一个宗教术语，意为“神圣的日子”，这个术语源于中世纪。而如今在说英语的国家，‘假日’的使用越来越少宗教的含义。因此，当人们在圣诞节和新年期间说‘假日快乐’时，他们往往也只是表达一种问候，一个毫无宗教色彩的问候，一个与耶稣的诞生毫不相干的问候。

中国是农业文明，自给自足的小农经济占主导地位，而西方是海洋与商业文明。由于中西民族先民的自然条件、生存方式不同，在漫长的历史过程中，也形成了不同的物质生活方式和精神生活方式。中国的宗教意识淡薄，而西方受基督教的影响很大。有无宗教信仰在中西方人民的社会习俗文化上留下了深深的印记。总的来说，中国的社会习俗文化是世俗化的，而西方社会习俗文化宗教色彩深刻。但很难说哪种文化就是“先进”，哪种文化就是“落后”，如果把“先进”的现代文化强行移植到“落后”国家，可能会产生水土不服的现象。因此，比较不同民族、不同国度的文化是为了在比较中认识世界，更好地尊重彼此的文化。 参考文献：

1.陈坤林、何强主编，《中西文化比较》，国防工业出版社，2012。2.阿尔文.施密特，《基督教对文明的影响》，汪晓丹等译，北京大学出版社，2004。

3.路易斯.亨利.摩尔根，《古代社会》，杨茹东译，商务印书馆，1981。

推荐第8篇：中西家庭教育对比论文

中西家庭教育对比

【摘要】近几年来，随着素质教育的深入人心，家庭教育已经成为当今社会关注的一个热点，是千万家庭的切身利益和迫切需求。因为，良好的家庭教育直接关系到了孩子的素质和品行，更关系到祖国的未来。它是科教兴国和可持续发展战略的重要组成部分，就中国目前来看，家庭教育的发展态势良好，一大批家长、学校创造了成功的经验，更有许多学生家长主动学习家庭教育知识，教育观念发生了深刻变化.但是尽管如此，家庭教育仍是一个薄弱环节，尤其是随着西方教育思想的传入，中国家长面对传统与现代家教思想，表现出无所适从的无奈。因此，对于开展家庭教育，既是机遇，又是挑战。而且，中西家庭教育各有千秋，在不同方面，教育方法也不同，所以我们就需要深刻了解中西家庭教育的差异，取长补短，并且不失时机地推进家庭教育现代化，这样中国的未来才具有不可估量的发展前景。

【关键词】 家庭教育，中西，传统 ，差异

从古至今，家庭教育在整个国家教育事业中起着重要的作用。邓小平曾说过；“国家现代化的基础在人才，人才的基础在教育，教育的基础在家庭。中国是一个重视家庭教育的国家。中国深厚的教育文化传统中包含了优秀的家庭教育成分。” 家庭教育、学校教育、社会教育是教育的三大支柱，三者缺一不可。如今，家庭教育业已成为当今社会关注的一个热点，是千万家庭的切身利益和迫切需求。

不过在比较之前，我觉得我们应该了解一下中西方国家的社会背景。众所周知，中国是社会主义制度，而大多数西方国家是属于资本主义制度。并且，历史文化也是不同的，中国提倡儒家思想，西方国家提倡文艺复兴。但是最重要的一点就是他们对家庭教育地位的态度也是不同的。在中国的传统家庭里，家长的权威意识占主导地位，而西方文明则主要强调斗争，平等，民主及人权。

当然，家庭教育是人类的一种教育实践。中西家庭教育还是有诸多共同之处。一般来说，它可以归纳于五点。

1、重视家庭教育。无论哪个国家，哪个民族都认为家庭是一个人的第一所学校，而家长是第一位老师。无论是中国，还是西方国家，无论是古代、近代还是现代，家庭教育始终是处于最基础的地位。

2、家教应从小做起，及时施教。《颜氏家训》说：“父母施教，当及婴稚，识人颜色，知人喜怒，便加教诲。”因为“人生幼小，精神专利，长成以后，思虑散逸，固须早教，勿失机也。”杜威也认为家庭教育应及早施行。

3、父母在教育角色上的分工。无论中西，在许多文化中母亲均被描绘成是主要抚养者，父亲则起有限的作用。父亲是孩子知性教育的主要承担者。母亲则负责孩子的饮食起居，物质保障，情感满足等，是孩子情感培育的主要承担者。其结果是孩子对父爱敬畏有余，亲爱不足，使亲子关系偏差，影响孩子的健全发展。

4、重视培养孩子热爱求知的习惯，重视阅读。古代的中国父母，一向深知这个道理，他们引导幼儿从小习读四书五经，诸子百家，激发其求知欲望。西方的父母也非常重视家庭阅读，幼儿睡前必听一段故事诵读，这是西方家教的一项优良传统。

5、重视言传身教。父母是孩子的模范，往往一个简单的动作要比上万句指令性的灌输有效的多。

尽管如此，由于中西方地域的差异和各自文化的不同，使得中西传统家教在更多的方面表现出各自的特色。据我所知，这大概涉及了十个方面。

1、教育倾向不同。

中国父母重社会教化，轻儿童成长。中国父母十分重视社会适应性的教化，但却常常忽视了从孩子达到身心发展的特点出发来促进其成长，他们往往按照既定的模式来培养子女，为他们的成长铺设康庄大道，外铄各种品行于子女。

西方父母更重视为子女提供一个可以与之抗争的成长环境，并养成他们坚韧的个性和良好的品行，根据社会的变化和子女身心的特征不断的调节、选择自己的培养观念和方式。

2、家庭教育价值观不同

中国家庭教育职能是为中国传统文化所强迫，传统中国几千年的儒家文化强调“修身、齐家、治国、平天下”。在此家国同构的思维定向中，家庭教育被赋以直接的社会意义。此外，中国传统的文化又将父母教育跟子女的个体成长与成就看作是直接相关的因果。中国父母十分看重人们对他们的教子方面作出的誉毁，认为教子成材是他们的成就，而教子不善则脸面无光。教育的目的是为了谋生，为了脸面。

西方家庭教育则认为教育的目的不是准备谋生，而是准备生存。他们所强调的“博雅教育”是具有一种塑造心智的价值，一种与功利的或职业的考虑无关的价值。

中国家庭的“比较”往往重学习，“比较”的方面较为单一，西方国家的家庭的“比较”往往注重全面的素质，中国家庭的比较，常常爱拿自己孩子的优点与他人孩子的缺点比较，使家长得以自慰；西方家庭的比较，往往能自省自己孩子的优点和成功之处，不习惯于争强好胜，论高低上下，中国的家庭在比较时往往想突出自己的形象，有意无意地贬低别人；西方家庭的比较往往注重自身的自尊、自重、自乐。

3、家庭主体观与教育的相互性不同

中国传统的家庭文化因袭着统治的模式，表现为家庭内部的权威意识。强调服从和尊重，重视外部控制。在中国的传统文化中，家庭的主要教育者是父母。中国父母的家长意识十分强烈。他们把孩子视为自己的独有私人财产，看作是他们的附属物。因此十分看重他们单方面的塑造，影响孩子的个性建构。他们注意到自身的形象，忽视了孩子与成人的相互作用，忽视了相互影响的过程和全面性，使幼儿处于被动地位，无视幼儿个体的存在。

西方文明是以儿童为主体的，更强调个人的奋斗，强调平等、民主并尊重个人权利。西方父母把孩子视为家庭中的平等成员，尊重孩子的人格和尊严，能让孩子独立思考，自由选择。他们尊重孩子的权利，不搞强迫教育。尊重孩子的自尊，主张孩子的天性发展，自然发展。父母的责任只在于发现并引导孩子的兴趣和潜能。为孩子创造有利的环境，重视与孩子的交流，重视教育的相互性。西方家庭教育中父母不是孩子的主宰，而是孩子的朋友。

4、教育的重心不同

中国传统文化所掌握的是生命与道德，所以十分重视生命、人伦。所以中国父母在教育上历来以道德作为最高价值取向。中国人心目中的“好孩子”首先是一个懂事听话的孩子，是指向群体的，人见人爱的。所以家长培养孩子修身养性，自我收敛，讲求含蓄，强调等级观念。中国家教的主要内涵是“仁、义、礼、智、信、忠、恕”中国孩子从小得到的是历史故事、伦理道德、忠孝节义的教导。儿童自幼耳濡目染的是冰冷的道德律令与清规戒律。自幼习读的是《三字经》、《弟子规》。

西方文化所掌握的则是知识，家庭对儿童主要是启发对大自然的好奇心与想象力。知识的创造来自好奇心。所以借由引发对大自然的兴趣，借由各种天马行空的童话故事，让孩子们具有广大的想象空间，以有利于对知识的创造，他们以儿童的心理发展作为最高指向，培养孩子的兴趣和创造力是西方家教的重心。

5、家庭本位与个人本位

中国传统文化是以家庭为本位的，注重个人的职责与义务。这在加以价值取向上呈现出如下特点：（1）家庭的教育功能强化。子女教育是家庭生命延续的一部分，家庭教育还在于达到“家教持久”的目的，它是维持发展家庭社会政治地位，保存弘扬家庭文化的重要工具。

（2）教育以家庭利益为主要价值取向。“光宗耀祖”、“光耀门第”是读书人的追求与目标。个人利益与家庭利益是融为一体的。这与中国传统文化的“永生观”紧密相关。

西方文化以个人为本位，注重个人的自由和权利。在教育上表现为将受教育者放在突出地位，强调个性的培养。但是个体本位并不等于个人主义，更不等同于以孩子为中心，家庭呼唤有丰富个性的个人，是能驾御自我，控制自我，超越自我的，拥有完美人格和健全个性的真正现代意义上的现代个人，而不是自私自利，依赖性强的功利化的个人。

6、独立意识的培养

中国家长在教育上所持的价值是为升学而学习，他们只要求孩子用心学习，其余全不用过问。使孩子从小养成依赖别人的习惯，在风浪面前，变得束手无策，一旦失去帮助就会怨天尤人。 西方父母注重从小就培养子女的独立意识，在西方家庭可以看到，孩子像大人一样，直呼来访亲朋好友的名字，大胆的发表自己的见解，参与家庭的讨论。这样独立的个性使孩子走向社会时更注重个人的能力与奋斗。

7、情感教育与体罚

家庭教育不同于学校教育的一个重要特点是爱的教育。中国家庭中反复出现的一个字是“不”、“不能”、“不行”、“不要”，中国集体教育除了用否定词来指导孩子的行为外，还习惯于对孩子说“应该”。西方家庭中经常用鼓励性的语言来表达父母对子女的赞赏。西方父母更注重个人素质与情感沟通。家庭主要围绕情感的构建与培育而展开。

8、教育方法的不同

中国传统的教育方法是照本宣科的灌输式教育，强调死记硬背。“两耳不闻窗外事，一心只读圣贤书”。西方更强调孩子的“悟”。他们喜欢让孩子亲身厉行，去大自然中，去生活中探求知识。

9、理财教育

在中国，挣钱养家和管理钱财是大人的事，孩子离这些还很远。他们没钱时便伸手向父母要。即使是成家立业后还是可以的。

在西方，理财教育是家庭教育的一个分支。西方父母一般不会不正规、无计划的给孩子钱，而是定期发给孩子一份固定基金。并帮助孩子树立正确的理财意识，养成良好的理财习惯，还注重对金钱的基本品质的培养。

10、宗教思想与科学教育

虽然中国文化也是以宗教为开端的，但是在教育上我们更强调科学性。《中华人民共和国义务教育法》明确规定：教育与宗教相分离。

西方的宗教传统直到近代乃至现代仍保留着强大的势力，它渗透到教育活动的各个方面，不仅是教育带有浓厚的宗教色彩，更重要的是它赋予了西方教育以内在的精神价值。

综上所述，我们可以看出中西家庭教育传统各有千秋，他们都是扎根于各自的传统文化土壤中的。我们当前遇到的家庭教育中的不良现象有很大一部分是由于具体教法的不妥而造成的。

因此，我们要一方面继承和发扬中国古代家庭教育的优良传统，另一方面汲取西方家教的精华，促进有中国特色的家庭教育的改革。在吸取我国优秀民族文化的基础上，将现代科学育人知识和方法，大力普及到千家万户，转变家长的观念，提高家长的自身素质。

在这里我有几点建议，主要包含4个方面：(1)首先是家庭教育观念的现代化，摒弃陈旧教育观念，与时俱进，跟上时代发展步伐。现代家庭教育的内容和方法科学化，以及教育手

段的现代化。建立现代家庭教育的机制，实现家庭教育管理的规范化。建立家庭教育的服务体系，做到保障措施制度化。

(2)确立家长在教育行为中的法制观念，解决好家庭教育中依法治教的问题；增强家庭教育的民主意识，尊重孩子，平等沟通，改变简单粗暴、压制体罚等不良作风；

(3)树立新的家庭教育理念，把“教子做人”作为家庭教育的重中之重；利用亲情教育的优势，开展个性化教育，发展孩子个性，为国家培养各种有用之才；采取鼓励、引导、宽容的科学方法，耐心教育，不断提高孩子自尊心、自信心和上进心；

(4)紧跟知识经济和信息时代的发展，进一步拓宽家庭教育思路，增强开放意识，提高家庭教育的适应性；重视和解决“重智轻德”的教育倾向，促进智力因素与非智力因素教育的有机结合，教育孩子学会学习和求知；继承中华民族优秀家教传统同时，也要面向世界，吸收引进外国思想文化精品，开展东西方家庭教育的交流。

【总结】 总之，中国的家庭教育和西方家庭教育有很大差异，各有优劣，我们应该祛除糟粕，取其精华。不失时机地推进家庭教育现代化，使教育世界化，各自取长补短，共同发展。

[1]邓小平.邓小平家庭教育的观点及其启示.《剑南文学：下半月》, 2010年第六期.211-211.

[2]《中华人民共和国义务教育法》，1986年4月12日.第五十二号第四条.

[3]张贵勇.《华尔街日报》，2011年3月3日.第三版

推荐第9篇：中韩对比教育学论文（推荐）

中韩高考制度对比及其启示

摘要：为了进一步深化中国教育改革与高考制度的革新，我们中国应博众家之所长，结合我国的国情及教育现状，改善我国现有的高考制度中的弊端及瑕疵。为此本文将中国与邻国韩国的高考制度分别从科目设置（即考试内容）、实施方式、录取标准（即准录制度）进行了对比，将两国在高考制度上的异同点进行剖析，并在此基础上论述韩国高考制度带给我们的思考与启示。

关键词：高考制度；中国；韩国；对比研究

Abstract：To deepen the reform of Chinese education and the revolution of the higher education entrance system,China should take advantage of every countries\' educational system.Combining the current state of china\'s education,we can improve the shortcoming of our system.this report has compare Chinese university entrance exam with Korean one.there are 4 divided part,the fixed subjects,the approaches,and the rules.the differences will be analyzed,on which gives us some new ideas.

Key words：higher education system；Chinese；Korea；research study

一、中韩两国不同的高考制度

无需赘言，无论是对个人还是国家来说，高考是一项关系到国家繁荣，社会稳定的重要考试制度，是联系中学与高等教育的纽带。然而，近年来为保障教育公平性，在群众中对教育改革的呼声越发高涨。下面就从以下三个方面做两国异同的分析。

(一) 科目设置

就目前来说，在中国，高考制度中的科目设置是采用文理分科制度。但其改革的进程是漫长而曲折的：中国自1952年全国实行统一高考以来，高考科目的设置就一直在不断改进.1977年恢复高考后， 考试科目设置再一次又只分文、理两类，取消了单独分“医”的专科。经过10年改革和试点后，最终“3+2”的方案提出了。该方案不尽如人意。为了实行高中教育的素质化，教育部于 1998年提出了“3+x” 高考

教育心理学之中韩高考制度对比

科目设置改革新方案。根据新方案，除语文、数学和英语这三门必考科目外，各高校可根据专业要求从中学物理、化学、生物、政 治、历史、地理6个科目或综合科目中确定一门或几门考试科目作为“x” 提供给学生。

相比较而言，现如今韩国的高考科目设置--大学修学能力考试具有学科测验与升学适应性测验统合的性质，其考试目的是对考生高中及高中以前学校教育阶段学力和是否具备进入大学学习能力的考查，而命题范围是高中及高中以前学校教育阶段的全部文化课。韩国的 “大学修学能力考试” 既分文理科，又设文理科的必考及必选考试科目和任选考试科目。但在20世纪80年代初，韩国对大学科目一度压缩到4门， 即数理领域、语言领域、外语领域、社会探究领域或科学探究领域。可见也是历经千辛万苦才取得成绩的。

通过以上陈述，可比得两国在科目设置的改革上存在着明显的差异： 一是在考试的性质和目的上，中国的高考属选拔性质，其考试的目的主要侧重于考查考生的入大学学习能力，而韩国 “大学修学能力考试” 则属于学科测验与升学适应性测验统合的性质，其考试目的是考查考生的一般学力和入大学学习的能力，强调跨学科知识的渗透；是一种融会贯通。

二、是在命题范围上，中国高考的内容只覆盖了高中阶段的主要文化课，而韩国“大学修学能力考试” 内容则涵盖了高中及高中以前学校教育阶段的全部文化课；

三是在考试的要求上，中国考生只有选择考文科或理科的权利，而韩国 “大学修学能力考试” 既划分文理科， 又以单一类型的试题规定了文理科的必考及必选考科目和任选考科目。大大增宽了学生的选择范围。

(二) 实施方式

中国高考的实施方式现为统一考试，分省命题。进入21世纪后， 在高考实施方面进行了较大的改革。自2002年上海北京实行自主命题以来，主命题的省、市已达到16个，涵盖了6大区域， 基本形成了“统一考试，分省命题” 的格局。

相比较而言，韩国的高考教育已经发展的较为合理与成熟：大学单独考试、国家考试或两者并行不断更迭。1944年韩国实施新的改革方案， 该方案允许各大学单独举行考试，以扩大它们在选拔录取时的自主权。在统一组织学能考试的基础上， 允许各大学举行不多于两科的笔试， 笔试可以由各高校联合命题， 也可以各校单独命题， 试题将从中央教育评价院题库中选取。该改革方案一直延续至今。

从中韩两国高考实施方式的改革可见，中国高考实施方式是由集权走向分权， 由 “统一考试， 统一命题” 走向 “统一考试， 分省命题” 。这种方式主要有调动地方积极性， 实现多样化、个性化命题新机制的优点。韩国高考实施方式是在统

- 2

教育心理学之中韩高考制度对比

种灵活的高考制度。这既有利于推进中学的素质教育，促进高校合理选拔人才，又能有效地提高学生的创新能力，保证其个性的发展。

2.多元化。

目前我国招生制度的选拔方式、选拔范围、录取评价等还比较单一， 不太合理。因此要积极探索并建立有助于反映学生综合素质、个性特长和探究创新 能力的多元化的考试评价系统和录取方式。可以考虑将高考成绩作为评价录取的依据之一，同时兼顾考生高中阶段学习情况、校长推荐信、教师评语、个性特长等综合 因素进行录取， 并逐步增加它们在评价体系中的比重。这种做法能较好地避免传统高考 “一次考试定终生” 的缺陷，同时也较好地避免了基础教育向应试教育方向畸形的发展， 也有利于高等学校选拔到真正优秀的人才。

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推荐第10篇：英汉对比研究期末论文

中 英 老 人 对 比

学号：1009224024 分组成员：李可可 姓名：李可可

班级：对外汉语二班

学院：文学院

联系方式：15937357562 英汉对比研究期末论文

摘要：中英老人如何对待年老方面，自从我们学习英语时候便知道，在英国，不能随便问年龄，如果问了，会被认为不礼貌。中国的老人很喜欢倚老卖老，他们乐意接受他们的年龄。中英老人的子女方面，在中国，儿孙满堂，四世同堂是老人们最愿意看到的了。在英国，在到18岁之后，父母就会像森林里的狼一样，把成年的小狼崽咬出家门，让他们学会独立生活中英老人的财产方面，在中国，自古到今都存在着一个家庭分家的问题，也就产生了当下的“富二代”。英国的老人大都很乐意做慈善事业，他们会把大部分的财产捐献给社会。中英老人生活状况方面，中国的老人晚年在儿女家帮儿女看孩子等，陪伴他们的是儿孙；英国的老人晚年在福利院，陪伴他们的是宠物。中国老人出门抱着儿孙散步，而英国老人出门牵着宠物„„

关键词：中国

英国

老年人

年龄

子女

财产

生活 我们中国尚处于发展中国家，伴随着社会的发展，社会问题也渐渐突出。我认为学习英汉对比研究是很重要的，我们可以借鉴西方公家的经验，取长补短，取其精华，去其糟粕，达到知己知彼，从而在世界竞争的舞台中占据前列。中国是世界上老龄人口最多的国家，中国正在加速“变老”，伴随着老人增多，老人问题也日益瞩目，而英国已经是发达国家，英国在1930年已经进入老龄化社会，是世界上最早进入老龄化社会的国家之一。中英的对比有助于解决我们自身的问题。下面我对中英老人进行对比。 中英老人如何对待年老方面。

自从我们学习英语时候便知道，在英国，不能随便问年龄，如果问了，会被认为不礼貌。他们很注重自己的个人价值，不希望自己是弱者。在公交车上，一般的老年人是不喜欢别人让座的，因为他们并不认为自己老了，他们永远都有着不向岁月服输的精神。在英国伦敦的街头,要是迎面走来一群老年人,你会发现,他们穿着时尚,打扮入流,走起路来风风火火,说起话来不紧不慢,神色中透露出一股骄傲和自信。英国老人就是这样,即便垂垂老矣,他们也要追求一种精彩的生活。把精彩留给自己，永远不会觉得美好的事情出现得太晚。英国很多英国老人兢兢业业地工作了几十年，退休后却没有坐在家中安享清闲，而是又开始了“第二次创业”。开餐馆、办咨询公司、写回忆录等，让英国老人的生活更加充实、精彩。英国５０岁以上的老人中，大约有６０％的人接触过电脑。他们面对年老，依旧衣着鲜艳，打扮整齐，用乐观的心态活出老年。

中国的老人很喜欢倚老卖老，他们乐意接受他们的年龄。“我走过的桥比你走过的路都多”这句话想必我们都听过，这句话老人们经常用来教育子女，明显的可以看出开年老是他们的资本。中国老人观念中认为来年之后就应该颐养天年。在公交上，别人让位也是正常现象。在中国，老年人总是认为自己老了，对新事物有着抵触的情绪。

中英老人的子女方面。

在中国，儿孙满堂，四世同堂是老人们最愿意看到的了。现在中国老人子女数量还是比较多的。当代七八十岁的中国老人子女一般家庭有三四个是很正常的，并且有重男轻女的倾向。有的家庭有了六七个女孩，但他们为了要男孩，往往还会再接着生养。五六十岁的老人与四十五岁左右老人子女数量则随着计划生育影响相对减少。甚至中国老人的子女会有“富二代”“官二代”之称，子女是老人们辛辛苦苦一辈子的奋斗动力。中国老人的子女一辈子都与父母紧密联系，老人抚养子女长大，上学，毕业了托亲朋好友或者花钱给儿女找工作，工作了再给儿女买房结婚，成家后帮儿女看小孩。子女就是老人们的寄托。

在英国没计划生育。1972年，18%的英国孩子是独生子女，现在已经增加到26%。据英国一项调查显示，在已经有一个孩子的英国父母中，差不多三分之二的人表示养不起第二胎，养大一个孩子的成本太高。英国子女16岁之前基本上是围绕在父母周围，法律规定父母有必须的监护权。没有父母的允许，孩子们几乎任何只有成人可以去做的事情也做不了。譬如，上酒吧去娱乐场所砸耳环纹身等等，18岁之前连去商店买酒和烟的权利也没有。父母在孩子16岁之前很愿意和孩子们呆在一起，16--18岁之间基本上不用太管理孩子，让孩子自己选择今后的道路。等到18岁之后，就会像森林里的狼一样，把成年的小狼崽咬出家门，让他们学会独立生活，他们很少管自己的孩子，他们生活的好坏和父母没有关系，如果他们在生活上有困难，他们需要找的是政府救济，而不是回家找父母。这种思想我们看来也许会感觉父母太无情。但英国孩子的独立能力比较强。 中英老人的财产方面。

在中国，自古到今都存在着一个家庭分家的问题。所谓分家，也就是把老人们的财产分给儿子，让儿孙来继承，这个带有很强的封建思想。现在中国大部分地区，老人们的财产一般是不分给嫁出去的女儿。分家也就是分老人攒一辈子钱，所以，也就产生了当下的“富二代”，这些人似乎很为父母的前感到骄傲。

在英国，有着比较完善的社会保险，退休金也是比较高的。他们根本不用为养老担心。政府会接受养老问题，清点老人财产，充当养老费用，当财产完全用光之后，余下的钱完全政府由支付，直到生命终结的那一天。这也是为什么英国的老人大都很乐意做慈善事业，他们会把大部分的财产捐献给社会。同时，子女也不愿意继承来源于父母的财产，他们要继承就要承担父母的余生的所有费用，直到没钱再申请政府救助。而且，在继承的过程中，还要交很多财产继承税款。于是，印象中晚年凄凉，孤独无子女围绕在身边的是英国老人余生的真实写照。他们挣钱很大程度上是为自己享受消费的。我们中国人也许会把这种做法看成不知道给自己留后路的资产阶级享乐主义。

中英老人生活状况方面。

用简单的话概括来说就是，中国的老人晚年在儿女家帮儿女看孩子等，陪伴他们的是儿孙；英国的老人晚年在福利院，陪伴他们的是宠物。中国老人出门抱着儿孙散步，而英国老人出门牵着宠物。这表面的一种现象则反映了其社会内在的不同。 在中国，受中国传统社会农耕思想的影响，儿孙满堂是他们最大的追求与满足，他们喜欢与儿孙在一起。与我国国情不同，在英国，子女成年后会各自离开家，开始自己独立的生活。他们不仅仅是与父母分居，而且为了寻找自己理想的工作，常常还可能迁居异地。在英国几乎没有儿孙绕膝的老人，有老伴的还可以相互照顾，如果失去了配偶，则一切都得自己料理。在英国，子女们很少会有常回家看看的念头，老人们也没有这份奢求。但退休后的老人很少有人会患上退休综合征。因为他们不是在家种花养草，就是到处旅游，早晚还会牵着宠物悠闲地散步。英国老人就是这样，过着属于自己的天马行空、独来独往的生活。

在中国，百善孝为先，我们世世代代受封建儒家思想的熏陶与影响，宗族观念根深蒂固。在中国有着父让子死，子不得的不死之说。中国人认为父母含辛茹苦的把我们养大，我们应该报答父母，在我们小的时候，我们是父母的全部，我们长大了，有能力时候父母就应该享我们的福。如果不赡养老人，就会被别人被社会指责，老人也会很痛苦。

在英国，是一个工业文明发达的资本主义国家，民主思想深入大众，在辛苦了一辈子后，他们想过自己独立自在的生活，如果老人跟着孩子们住，会被别人认为是很失面子的，是没有能力的表现，在英国是很注重个人价值的。但我们说，英国人没有亲情，没有家庭观念，没有伦理道德。其实，这是一个错误谬论，这只是他们的价值观而已。 但是在中国伴随社改革开放的近几十年，中国大部分地区都出现了空巢老人的现象。空巢”，原比喻小鸟离巢后的情景，现在已被引申为子女离家后的家庭空寂。子女离开家工作，家里只剩下孤独的老人。当子女离家，父母究竟有多么孤独？中央电视台的一则公益广告给人们留下了深刻的印象：一桌子丰盛的饭菜，一阵突然响起的电话铃声，老人拿起电话，热热闹闹的电话那头，子女们以各种理由宣告“今天不回家”。老人脸上的表情慢慢从希望变为失望，放下电话，发出一声无奈的叹息：“都忙，忙。忙点好啊！”夜深人静时，电视已剩一片雪花，老人拉紧身上的毛毯御寒，宽大的沙发越发显出她身影的孤单与瘦小。这时，一个深沉的画外音提醒着天下儿女们：“别让你的父母感到孤独，常回家看看。”

在快速到来的老龄化社会中，不仅老人的生活、医疗需要保障，他们的精神状态同样需要受到重视。一项针对近1.4万名城市老人的调查发现，他们中四成人都有孤独、压抑、心事无处诉说之感。尽管今年6月26日，“常回家看看”作为精神慰藉条款，已经被写进《老年人权益保障法（修订草案）》，然而，“别让父母感到孤独”需要来自社会与子女更多的亲情。同时，每个人都会变成老人，关爱老人也就是关爱我们自己的明天！

以上是我从中英老年人对待年龄问题上，子女方面，财产方面，生活状况方面进行了简单的对比。有不到之处还望老师予以批评指正。

第11篇：英汉语言对比研究论文

摘要

随着科学技术的迅猛发展和经济全球化，各国人们之间的交流已是一个必然趋势，我们对外交往中，跨文化的言语交际也显得愈发重要。

语言是文化的载体，文化差异反映到语言层面上则表现为语言差异，不同的国家和民族的语言表现出的文化背景和思维模式都有所不同，因此我们有必要把英语与母语进行对比分析，进一步认识英语和母语的特性与差异，从而促进文化交际。

本文将从语言与文化、综合语与分析语、刚性与柔性、形合与意合，四个角度对英汉两种语言进行对比与分析，从细节之处去感受两种语言的微妙差别，从而对英语的学习有更深刻的认识。

关键词： 语言与文化 综合语与分析语 刚性与柔性

形合与意合 英汉两种语言

内容

一、引言

二、教材篇

1.语言与文化

2.综合语与分析语

3.刚性与柔性

4.形合与意合

三、课堂篇

四、疑惑篇

五、结语

英汉对比研究

语言是一面镜子，它反映着一个民族的文化，揭示该民族文化的内容；语言既是社会的产物，又是人类历史和文化的结晶。同时语言与文化互相影响，互相作用;理解语言必须了解文化，理解文化必须了解语言。

汉语和英语则是在不同的历史背景和社会形态中形成的两种截然不同的语种，本质上都浸透着各自民族文化的特征，但是由于东西方不同的历史文化背景又使得汉英两种语言在交流中产生了碰撞。

本文将从语言与文化、综合语与分析语、刚性与柔性、形合与意合，四个角度对英汉两种语言进行对比与分析，进一步认识英语和母语的特性与差异从而对英语的学习有更深刻的认识，进而促进文化交际。

一、教材篇

1.语言与文化

语言和文化之间有着必不可分的内在联系：一方面，语言是文化的一个重要的因素，另一方面，文化的许多要素需要借助语言来表达，即：语言是文化的重要载体，文化是语言的管轨。语言是文化的基石——没有语言，就没有文化；语言又受文化的影响，反映文化。可以说，语言反映一个民族的特征，它不仅包含着该民族的历史和文化背景，而且蕴藏着该民族对人生的看法、生活方式和思维方式。

随着科学技术的迅猛发展和经济全球化，各国人们之间的交流已是一个趋势和必然。由于英语国家与中国有不同的风俗，信仰，道德价值观，历史，等文化上的差异，这些差异又通过语言表现出来。新的历史条件对英语教师和英语教学都提出了新的要求。在文化交流全球化的背景下，新的教学方法和手段不断涌现。英语教师面临更多的挑战和机遇。

因此，对于英语专业的我来说，要学好英语，就要用对比分析的手段来找出中西语言以及中西文化的差异，从而摆脱母语的思维方式和使用习惯来理解英语。同时了解英美国家的文化传统、风俗习惯、文学历史等方面的知识，将语言与文化结合，才能更好的去学习这门语言，减少交流的障碍。

2．综合语与分析语

综合语的特征是运用形态变化来表达语法关系，分析语的特征是不用形态变化而用词序及虚词来表达语法关系。其中形态变化，词序和虚词是表达语法关系的三大手段。汉语为典型的分析语，英语为综合-分析语。

首先，英语有形态变化，而汉语则没有严格意义的形态变化。形态变化主要体现在构词形态和构形形态上。在构词方面，英语的词缀灵活多变，有大量的前缀、后缀，而汉语则不多见。在构形方面，英语常常是将动词、助动词和情态动词结合起来表示时态、语态和语气的变化，而汉语同一个词就可以表示主格、宾格，单数、复数，或者现在、过去等行为。 其次，英语词序较灵活，汉语则较固定。英语词序倒置的现象比较多，汉语 主要表现为功能性倒装。汉语的定语一般在名词前，英语定语位置较灵活。 再次，虚词方面，英语经常使用定冠词、不定冠词、介词和连接词，汉语则没有冠词，表并列和从属关系的连接词的使用率也较低，较常使用的是丰富多彩的助词，如动态助词、语气助词等。 最后，英语是语调语言，汉语是声调语言。语调和重音的变化是英语语音的主要表意手段，两者的密切配合可以表达意义的差别，而汉语的语音手段主要是声调。汉语语音音节匀称，具有均衡美和节奏美。

3.刚性与柔性

1) 英语的刚性

英语句子有严谨的主谓结构，句子主次分明，层次清楚，多层递进，前呼后拥，严密规范，句型重形合，句式为“聚集型”。英语的主谓结构有五种基本句型，即 SV, SVP，SVO，SVoO，SVOC，而上述句型和变式可以通过增加修饰语，扩展基本句型的成分，基本句型的组合、省略、倒装等方式来扩展。英语注重句子结构完整，通过形态标志、连接词和填补词的使用来保持其完整性。此外，句子成分、词语之间必须在人称、数、性和意义等方面保持协调一致的关系，即：语法一致、意义一致、就近原则等，其也是英语句子呈“聚集型”的重要因素。英语受形态变化约束，有词性标记和关系词及连接词，语句关系结构比较清楚，因此语法歧义较少。

2) 汉语的柔性

汉语不受形态的约束，没有主谓协调一致的关系，其主谓结构具有多样性、复杂性和灵活性，句型重意合，句式呈“流散型”。汉语的主谓结构要比英语复杂的多。汉语的主语形式多样，可有可无，即：它可以表示施事、受事，也可以表示时间地点，可用名词、动词，也可用形容词、数量词，句子可以没有主语，也可以省略主语，还可以变换主语予以隐含；谓语也复杂的多，即：它可以是动词，名词和形容词，可以是一个动词，也可以是多个动词，可以是一个单词，也可以是多个词组，可以是连动式、兼语式、把字式、紧缩式和主谓式。按表意功能和表达形式，汉语句型可以分为话题句、施事句、关系句、祈使句、描写句、说明句等。此外，汉语句式有完全句也有大量的不完全句两者混合交错，组成流水句。汉语缺乏形态变化和词性标记，较少使用连接词，重意会，因此语法歧义较多。

总之，英语重形合，词有形态变化，造句注重形式接应，要求结构完整，句子以形寓意，以法摄神，语法呈现显性，刚性，因而严密规范，采用的是焦点句法，具有严谨的客体意识：汉语重意合，字词缺乏形态变化，造句注重意念连贯，不求结构齐整，句子以意役形，以神统法，语法呈现隐性、柔性，因而流泻铺排，采用的是散点句法，具有灵活的主体意识。

4.形合与意合

形合指的是词语或分句之间用语言形式手段连接起来，表达语法意义和逻辑关系，意合指的是词语或分句之间不用语言形式手段连接，其中的语法意义和逻辑关系通过词语或分句的含义表达。英语造句主要采用形，汉语造句主要采用意合法。

1）英语的形合法

英语造句常用各种形式手段连接词、语、分句或从句，注重显性接应、句子形式、结构完整，比较严谨；英语通常综合运用关系词、连接词、介词和其他连接手段、形式，把各种成分连接起来，构成长短句子来表达一定的语法关系和逻辑联系。意合法在英语里属于“变态”，主要是一些简练谚语、表达复合句内容的简单句，以及表达状语从句意义的定语从句。

2）汉语的意合法

汉语造句少用甚至不用形式连接手段，注重隐性连贯、逻辑事理顺序，比较简洁。汉语的意合法的手段有语序、反复、排比、对偶、四字格等。汉语的许多主从复合句，虽然不用关联词，形式类似并列复句，但分句含义却有主次之分。紧缩句句式简明紧凑，分句之间的语法关系和逻辑关系往往是隐含的，四字格是汉语运用最广的语言形式。

二、课堂篇

1.对比

对比是比较的基础，其目的是求同与求异，寻找共性与个性。 2．智慧

理想是书籍，是智慧的钥匙，书是传播智慧的工具，因此要学会欣赏智慧。 3.思维方式

我们要形成“归纳，分析”的思维方式，归纳出属性的共性，分析属性的异性 4.言语和语言

语言是社会生活的客观现象，对于使用某个语种的人来说是统一的，每种语言都是有发言、语法、句法方面的一整套确定的规则，这些 规则一经产生，就有着较大的稳定性。而言语则是一种心理现象，它表明的是一种心理交流的过程，它就具有个体性和多变性。言语是语言现象，是预料和语言事实，语言是从言语中概括和抽象出来的。

语言是交流思想的工具，是表达观念的符号系统，是由关系联系起来的共存要素构成的系统是由形式极和意义极两极构成的象征系统。（此处的系统是指把不同要素统一起来形成一个整体，并且整体具有它的功能）我们要用继承、批判和创新的眼光来看待语言。语言反映的是以人的方式所认识的东西，而语言的结构反映的是人以人的方式所认识的世界。世界是不可知的，但我们可以用我们的方式认识世界，这就是所谓的可知论。语言促进了科学和哲学的萌芽，它反映了物质所具有的属性。理解语言，理解句子，唯一可靠的是逻辑，语言的同一性是主谓一致。语言学的特征是设计特征。

5.语言的要素

语言的要素是词，任何语言，事物意义都是相对于其他事物来确定。陈述肯定事实是从已知信息到未知信息。例如：There is a school by the lake.其中there是已知信息，a school 是未知信息。There is a school 是新信息，by the lake 是旧信息。此外，否定词提前，构成已知信息。例如：I don’t like math, nor does he.前一部分是已知信息，后一部分是未知信息。关于状语，汉语中疑问助词放在句尾，而英语疑问词放在句头。 6.英汉语的复杂句子结构特点

英语是复杂句，以两个中心聚集，是树型结构，汉语以散句居多，是竹节型结构。

1）英语句子是聚集型，因为有很多关系词，如连词、介词等，靠“关系词”来排列语序，聚集在中心树型词两边。英语注重主语的客观化，为避免头重脚轻，主语用形式主语代替，按“先果后因”的顺序来排列语序。英语的定语可放在被修饰词的左右两边，是左右分支。 2）汉语句子靠语序来表达句子成分关系，按自然顺序来排列语序。汉语的定语只能放在被休是词的左边，是左分支。汉语句子具有口语的特点。 7.翻译的步骤

1）关系分析 2）寻找基本句型 3）其他成分的扩展

8.如何研究句子？

词是句子的单位，句子则是语篇的单位。句子是由概念和关系组合的结构，也是形义两极的象征结构。所谓句法，从传统上讲，它是由词构成；从语义上讲，它是概念或理念的组合；从语义功能上讲，它是“述谓结构”，表达完整的关系；此处的“述谓”就是对对象进行阐述或描述。“述谓结构”分两种情况，因为语义是逻辑问题，全世界的语义逻辑是一样的，所以从逻辑学上讲是变元+谓词，所谓的变元是不定的变化的词，是描述的对象；二就是论元。从句法功能上讲，它是主谓结构或NP+VP结构，此处的VP可以是形容词性词语也可以是动词性词语;从传达的信息上讲，它的基本格式是“话题+说明”。 9．分类层次原则：

1）标准的同一性 2）对象的穷尽性 3）归属的唯一性

根据这种分类层次原则，我们把英语主谓结构归为五种基本句型，即：

1）主语+动词 2）主语+动词+表语 3）主语+动词+宾语

4）主语+动词+间接宾语+直接宾语 5）主语+动词+宾语+宾语补足语。

把汉语按照表意功能及表达形式分为七大类，即：

1）话题句，其格式是“话题+说明”；

2）主谓句，包括“施事句”、“有无句”、“描写句”、“说明句”；

3）关系句，既表达各种关系的复句；

4）紧缩句，由复句紧缩而成，表达复句的并列、转折、假设、条件、因果、让步等关系；

5）存现句，即表示人或事物存在或消失的句子； 6）呼叹句，即交谈中互相呼唤、应对或感叹的句子； 7）祈使句，即表达要求、命令或请求的句子。 10．认知方式 任何一个结果必然隐含着一个认知过程或一个认知方式。苏轼有诗云：“横看成岭侧成峰远近高低各不同，不识庐山真面目，只缘身在此山中”。从而可以看出认知过程的不同，即：认知事物的远近高低的不同、相对认知标准的不同、局内局外认知的结果不同、参照物的不同，其得到的结果也就不同。例如：介词over原意是通过；关于；遍及；翻越。但搭配不同，意思也就不同，如look over 眺望，fall over 跌倒，turn over 翻阅，throw over推翻。不同领域之间有共性，跨域共性，但认知方式不同，得到的结果也就不同，而以上over介词的意思就是来自于认知方式。 11.总结英语的刚性：

1）英语表达的语法关系和语法概念你的曲折变化是刚性的。

2)英语的句法结构有刚性，表现在一下四个方面： 

英语的语法结构必须是严格的主谓结构，主谓不能少,省略例外。

 英语的省略是刚性的及英语的省略条件也是刚性的。 并列句中的省略，回答问题时的省略，祈使句中的省略，感叹句中的省略。

 英语的主谓之间通常有逻辑关系

 英语的主谓结构严格的分为5种基本句型，且所有的 句子必须是这五种句型的变化和扩展 3) 英语的基本句型严格规定了它的基本要素。 4)英语重形合，汉语重意合

5)英语形合意也合，汉语形散意也散。 12．语言的歧义

每一种语言都有歧义，而汉语的歧义要比英语多。其原因是英语有形态变化，遵循主谓一致和逻辑对应，因此歧义较少，然而汉语缺乏形态变化和词性标记以及连接词，且重意会，略语形式，严重依赖语境，一次歧义较多。 13.英语的最大特点是模具制造，严格按句型和逻辑来。 14．词有活用，没有固定类别，词性的确定取决于它的位置和功能，即词无定类，词无定义。

三、疑惑篇

学完这本教材前三章以后我也有一些困惑，例如为什么语言学家把汉语归类为分析语，把英语归类为综合分析语？我在网上百度了一下，说汉语是一种逻辑性很强的语言，逻辑自然表示在语言形式之中。而英文的逻辑性十分混乱，所以，才产生了一种超越语法的逻辑学。汉语归类于《分析语》，英语归类于《综合——分析语》，含义就在于此。看了这个答案还是感觉模棱两可，抽象难懂。还有翻译课堂上老师讲过，英译汉要拆，汉译英要合，这也体现了英汉两种语言的差别，但是我在汉译英时总是会遇到一些困难，我不知道通过这本书的学习，能不能帮我解决这些困难，提高我的翻译技能。此外，本书第二章说英语句式呈刚性，严格按句型和逻辑来，这应该是书面语的要求吧，日常生活中的口头语就没那么严格了，例如：遇到一些特殊场景时，句型、语法什么的都抛之脑后了。而汉语句式呈柔性，句子灵活多变，但是在书面语中，也是要求很严格的，否则句子就读不通，表意模糊。那么这种分类是不是也是相对而说的呢？

四、结语

中国文化博大精深，源远流长，作为文化的载体——汉字，更是贯穿古今风雨中的一件中国独有的国宝。汉语虽是我们的母语，但我们还得花更长的时间去学习，去钻研。带着根深蒂固的中式思维去学习英语是很不容易的事，不仅要学习他的文化传统、风俗习惯、文学历史，还要培养西方思维去学习去体会他的魅力。虽然我还有很多疑惑的地方，但是，学会用“归纳，分析”的思维方式去探索语言，深入去钻研，从英汉两种语言的细微差别中去领略中西思维的奥妙，我相信会有豁然开朗的一天。找到正确的方法，从而更好的去学习英语，学习西方的文化，提高自己的机能，更好的去交流，适应当今社会的发展。

第12篇：科技论文——植物对比试验

科技论文——植物对比试验

天河区先烈东小学 六年(5)班 刘宗欣

实验对象：兰花

植物一：照射紫外线，处于常温环境中。

植物二：照射频谱灯，处于常温环境中。

试验简介： 将两盆生长条件完全相同的兰花放在有相同的温度、湿度的环境下，其中一盆接收紫外线灯照射，另一盆接受频谱灯的照射。

实验目的：了解现代科学技术对植物的帮助，研究哪一种技术更有利于植物的生长。

试验经过：

第一天

第一盆兰花接受紫外线照射，并无异常情况。

第二盆蓝花接受频谱仪照射，并无异常情况。

第三天

第一盆兰花花瓣的颜色开始变化，由紫色转为绿色。

第二盆兰花花瓣的颜色无变化，花朵并无异。

第七天

第一盆兰花出现干燥情况，花尖端开始蜷缩。

第二盆兰花并未出现干枯现象，花瓣色泽光鲜亮丽，饱含水分。

第十八天

第一盆兰花的干燥情况加重，花瓣出现枯萎症状，兰叶发黄变干。

第二盆兰花的花瓣依然饱含水分，花朵及花叶并未出现异常情况。

第二十二天

（将两盆花同时停止照射，放在常温坏境中，模拟自然生长。）

第一盆兰花完全枯萎，兰叶失去水分掉落，花朵死亡。

第二盆兰花生长良好，花姿精神，花瓣花叶含水量多，花瓣色泽鲜艳。

试验总结：

兰花属于性娇弱的类，紫外线虽然能够使植物不受病毒侵害，但兰花在接受紫外线灯的持续长时间照射后，会受到强紫外线的严重影响，渐渐失去水分而死，因此娇弱的花类不宜使用紫外线照射。而频谱灯是按照不同的植物喜爱吸收光种的颜色，将不同波长的彩色光线混合在一起照射植物，使植物在光中也能获得养分和必要的元素。这不仅能使花期延长，还能让花的整体情况得到良好的改善，使之具有更高的观赏性。

汽车环保排气管小制作

先烈东小学 六

（四）班 赵慧琳

汽车给人们带来了方便，但汽车尾气却给大气带来了污染，给人类健康带来了威胁。

据医学界研究分析，汽车尾气的主要化学成分是二氧化硫、一氧化硫、氮氧化物、铅。长期大量吸收汽车尾气会产生疾病，这样，人们白白地得上了病，甚至无辜地付出了生命的代价，所以我想制作一种环保排气管。

汽车排气管主要由不锈钢管和消声器组成。可我制作的环保排气管主要的一样道具——三元催化器。

三元催化器在排气管中段加装膨胀区间可以降低尾气排放压力，更好地降低噪音，从上面两部分分流出来的废气，废气再进入宽敞的尾段，经过三元催化器的处理，净化后排放到空气中。

我下定决心，准备做一个净化空气排气管。我买好了材料，开始和哥哥制作，哥哥是大二学生，这方面他很在行。

我们先将一段像蜜蜂窝一样的东西上面涂满一种特殊涂料，然后用电线将三元催化器的一端连接到排气管的末端，嘿！我和哥哥将我们的成果带到楼下去试验。

“轰隆隆……”奇怪，怎么会有这种声音呀！ 经过检查，原来是没装消声器。待我们把消声器装上后，再次试验，果然闻不到汽车尾气的怪味了！

成功了！真是工夫不负有心人。我希望我的小制作能让世界变得空气清新，绿色环保！

第13篇：中西哲学对比 选修论文

中国哲学的神话渊源

冷建（201200182011）

能源与动力工程学院2012级交通运输

摘要：正如尼采点明“日神精神”和“酒神精神”是西方哲学精神在前轴心期神话时代的渊源，“夸父精神”和“女娲精神”是中国哲学精神在前轴心期神话时代的渊源。夸父精神是一种阳刚进取的“非理性’精神，而女娲精神是一种阴柔包容的“理性”精神。这两种基本精神呈现为互补炭系，共同构成中华民族哲学的二元一体格局。经过一定时期的理性转换，尤其是经过周易哲学的话语转换。它们成为了中华民族哲学精神的核心精神。

Abstract：Just as Nietzsche pointed out that Dionysus’ spirits and Apollo’s spirits were the mythological sources of Western philosophy in Pre-axial Period。Kuafu’s spirits and Nvwa’s spirits were the mythological sources of Chinese philosophy in Pre-axial Period ．Kuafu’s was a irrational spirit of enterprise。while Nvwa’s was a rational spirit of gentlene and lenity．They appeared in a relation of mutual-complement and formed the dual integration of Chinese national philosophy．Through the rational transformation in the Axial Period.Especially that of philosophical utterance in the Book of Change，both of them became the central spirits of the philosophy of Chinese Nation，

关键词：夸父精神；女娲精神；哲学精神；神话象征

从小我们就非常熟悉女娲、夸父等神话人物，他们有的是人类的救星，有的有着非同一般的经历，有的则展示了可贵的精神。这些神话故事对我们人格的培养也发挥了不少的作用。后来我们又接触了西方神话，知道了西方神话中的宙斯、阿波罗、奥丁等众神，这给了我们耳目一新的感觉。让我们看到了两种文化的不同。下面，我们将中国古代神话与西方神话作一比较。简单探讨研究一下中西方文化的异同。中国上古神话没有得到充分发育，它没有欧洲那样的神话巨制，现存的神话都是支离破碎的，散见于各种古代典籍之中，在经、史、子、集四部里都有，并且不成系统。然而，古希腊神话却不同。希腊有一部长达４８卷，近两万八千行的荷马史诗——《伊里亚特》和《奥德赛》，记载、加工了古希腊丰富的神话传说，并形成了一个完整、庞大的神话传说体系。这是由于希腊神话产生之时，曾出现若干城邦奴隶制国家，与此同时出现了相应的城邦文化，出现了史诗形式及悲剧，这些史诗和悲剧都以古神话为武库和素材，因而使得希腊上古时代的神话得到记录、整理、加工和流传。此外，古希腊直至公元前 ４世纪为马其顿所吞并时，还是奴隶社会，奴隶社会越长，对上古神话的保存发展才越有好处。再有，早在荷马时代，希腊人便已基本上作为一个整体在活动了，他们的城邦以斯巴达、雅典为首，经常联合行动，于是他们中间出现了像荷马那样的人物，把分散、零碎的神话综合在一起，构成一个完整的体系。以后希腊神话一直被保存下来。

每个民族的哲学精神乃奠基于“轴心时期”，这一点现在已得到公认；但轴心时期的这种哲学精神却是孕育于此前的“神话时代”的，这一点还没有引起人们足够的注意，相反，人们倒是更多地注意到了“前轴心期”的轴心时期之间的差异对立。例如西方当代某些哲学家为了反思和克服轴心时期以来哲学的弊端，力图返回前轴心期。其实，西方哲学精神虽然确立于古希腊哲学时代，但它却是孕育于此前的古希腊神话时代的，这就正如中国哲学精神虽然确立于春秋战国时期。但它同样孕育于此前的中国神话时代。显然，神话乃是民族哲学精神的最初的象征形式。因此。我们可以通过对一个民族神话的阐释，来揭示这个民族哲学传统的渊源。唯其如此。尼采所提出的“日神精神”与“酒神精神”，非常形象精炼地概括表征了西方哲学的核心精神。这对于我们探寻中国哲学精神在前轴心期神话中的渊源与象征提供了一种很好的参照。中华民族哲学精神核心可以概括为由上古神话所表征的阳刚进取的“夸父精神”与阴柔包容的“女娲精神”；到了轴心时期，才由哲学话语转换为《周易大传》的乾阳之德“自强不息”精神与坤阴之德“厚德载物”精神，进而演化出中国哲学传统的两大支柱—儒家哲学与道家哲学。

每个民族在哲学觉醒的轴心时期之前，都曾有一个神话时代，区别仅仅在于这种神话的文本形式有所不同。古希腊神话的形式是，即长篇叙事诗的形式，这与中国藏民族《格萨尔王传》的形式一致，却与汉民族的神话文本形式有很大的区别。中国前轴心期汉语神话的形式既有诗歌的形式，例如《诗经》里就保存着许多上古神话传说(但也不同于西方式的长篇，而是短篇)；也有散文的形式，例如《尚书》乃至《左传》当中保存的许多远古英雄传说故事，就其实质而言，还是神话性质的东西。尼采正是从这种前轴心期的神话中提取了两个典型的形象，用以象征西方哲学精神的渊源：他在自己的第一部著作《悲剧的诞生》中，用“日神”阿波罗和“酒神”狄俄尼索斯这两个希腊神话形象，来概括象征西方哲学的两大根本精神传统。当然，在尼采那里，酒神精神与H神精神首先是“艺术精神”；但是尼采的美学从一开始就不只是一般美学家那样的美学，而毋宁说是一种人生观、乃至就是一种真正的哲学世界观。这是因为在他看来，“只有作为一种审美现象，人生和世界才显得是有充足理由的。”正是在这个意义上，《悲剧的诞生》才是他的哲学的真正诞生地。

“日神精神”和“酒神精神”是两种基本精神力量，作为乐观主义者的尼采跟作为悲观主义者的叔本华，对此的理解是不同的：叔本华认为，个体要通过否定个体化原理，来摆脱永恒痛苦，最终否定生命意志；尼采认为，个体是要通过超越个体化束缚，来达到意志本体境界，故肯定生命意志。日神精神和酒神精神之不同，“在我看来，日神是美化个体化原理的守护神，唯有通过它才能真正在外观中获得解脱；相反，在酒神神秘的欢呼下，个体化的魅力烟消云散，通向存在之母、万物核心的道路敞开了。”

关于夸父和女娲的神话记载，最早见于《山海经》。但《山海经》所载的神话故事能否视为“前轴心期”的东西，这似乎是存在疑问的。为此，我们应该严格区分这样两个问题：《山海经》这部书的成书时代问题。众所周知，班固已经著录了《山海经》，一般公认它至少是先秦的文献。至于到底“先”到什么时候，则是至今尚无定论的悬案。此书旧题为夏禹或伯益作，虽不可信，但似乎对于认识此书的来源之古也是有所启发的。我认为，《山海经》这样的文献也跟上古其它许多文献一样，并非一人一时之作，而是经历了一个长期的辗转流变过程，而它最初的形式所处的时代，我们已经不得而知，很可能是非常久远的了。《山海经》所记载的神话来源问题。我认为，《山海经》里所记载的那些事也跟其它许多上古文献所记载的故事一样，最初都是口耳相传的，至于这种口耳相传的情形究竟始于何时，很可能是极其渺远的时代。

夸父形象象征着中国哲学传统的刚健进取的精神，主要体现在以下几点上：刚健有为的进取精神。读夸父故事，我们强烈感受到一种昂扬奋进的精神力量。尤其是在他饥渴难耐、“渴欲得饮”的情况下，“饮于河渭，河渭不足，北饮大泽”，毫不气馁，想方设法补充水分，恢复体力，以便继续“追赶太阳”，更表现出一种积极奋发的人生态度。这种人生态度乃是中华民族精神、中国哲学精神的一种主导倾向。知其不可为而为之的执着精神。这种真正的英雄主义，也是中华民族精神的重要内容。还有死而后已的坚韧精神。确实，总起来看，夸父精神与尼采的酒神精神有相当一致的特征，即具有一种非理性主义的性质。

女娲形象象征着中国哲学的柔韧包容的精神传统。博大宽厚的包容精神。在中国哲学中，“地”一向是作为宽容博大的象征的。女娲精神与“地”具有密切联系，在一定意义上可以说是大地的象征。生生不息的生命精神。上文谈到女娲造人、作为“高媒”之神主管婚姻生殖，都表明了这一点。协调和谐的和合精神。“和”是中华民族的一种突出的精神传统，而女娲精神就是其早期神话体现。较之夸父精神，女娲精神似乎更具“实用理性”的意味：如果说夸父精神更接近于尼采的酒神精神，那么女娲精神就更接近于尼采的日神精神。

儒、道两家的哲学，其实正是夸父精神和女娲精神进入轴心时期以后的两种表现。儒家入世，崇尚有为，富有进取精神，正是夸父精神的体现；道家避世，崇尚自然，富于退让精神，乃是女娲精神的体现。当然，进一步讲，儒道两家各自分别亦兼有夸父精神和女娲精神，只不过侧重点不同而已。

参考文献：袁珂、周明 《中国神话资料萃编》

尼采

《悲剧的诞生》 无名氏

《山海经》 刘安

《淮南子》

第14篇：中西酒文化对比的论文

Abstract: Nowadays, with the expansion of communication between China and Western countries and the globalization of the world, the differences between Chinese and Western cultures have been attracted much more attention, for instance, the differences of wine culture is one of which focused as an iue.The wine is considered as the gift given by the god of wine.Wine culture has a long history and wine plays an important role in people’s daily life, and it combines people’s lives and interpersonal communication in all aspects.On the other hand, as a linker of inheriting history and leading to the future, wine is an article that deserves our earnest study.Because of the differences of living environment, historical background， traditions, values and thinking mode，social norms and culture, wine culture has a different connotation in different countries and regions and shows the characteristics of disparate style as a kind of profound cultural phenomenon.This article is an analysis performed after a lot of data collection and reading, which mainly describes the differences of wine culture between China and western countries.According to the research, the wine culture between China and western countries is very special, which has similarities in their differences and differences in their similarities.The study presents that the content of the wine culture is really rich and complex.Therefore, for the sake of the succeful intercultural communication, among different nations and regions having a good knowledge of wine culture is neceary.What’s more, it can deepen people’s understanding of their own history.

Key words: Wine Culture Intercultural Communication Cultural Differences

摘要： 随着中西方交流的扩大,中西文化之间的差异也越来越受到重视,酒文化的差异也当然是其中之一。酒被认为是酒神赐予人们的礼物,酒文化源远流长.酒在人们日常的交际生活中起着重要作用,它融会贯通了人们生活和人际交往的各个方面。而酒作为一个既传承历史又通向未来的道具是一个值得我们认真研究的课题。而由于生活环境、历史背景﹑传统习俗、价值观念、思维模式、社会规范以及文化底蕴的不同,酒文化作为一种深刻的文化现象,也在中西方各个国家、各个地区有着各不相同的内涵,呈现出风格迥异的特性。本文是在经过大量资料收集和阅读之后进行的分析总结,主要论述的是中西方酒文化之间的差异。中西方的酒文化同中有异、异中有同,内容丰富,了解不同民族的酒文化,有助于人们成功地进行跨文化交际,同时也加深了对历史文化的了解。

关键词

酒文化 跨文化交际 文化差异

1.The Background of Wine Culture 1.1 Wine Culture in China

China is one of the ancient countries in the world and has a long history about

the wine culture.“Since the appearing of wine and formed the methods of brewing wine, then the procees of brewing, the making of all kinds of drinking sets and drinking customs and etiquette were gradually formed and completed.” (Lixiaoye, 2010, P7) This is just the definition of wine culture.It is well known that Confucianism is the core of Chinese culture, so people\'s understanding of the wine culture tends to the spiritual dimension and gives it a variety of emotions.In 1987, the renowned economist profeor Yu Guangyuan put forward the phrase “wine culture” in China and Wan xiaoyan (2009) explains that the wine culture has broad and narrow meaning.In the broad sense, wine culture including wine technology with thousands of years’ enhancement, technological level, legal system and drinking customs; in the narrow sense, wine culture is just referred to drinking etiquette, custom and anecdote.There are many experts devote themselves to the research of wine culture, but it’s difficult to give a clear definition.Wine culture represents different characteristics in different times and has different effects on society.

Throughout the Chinese wine culture’s history, we know that wine culture studies the material, brewing techniques of wine and its social attitude.Xu Shaohua (1999) said that wine means drinking in social activities has a specific effect on politics, economic, culture, military affairs, religion, art, science and technology, social psychology, and folk customs.Wine culture is the combination of material culture and spiritual culture.It\'s a special and attractive culture.Next, take the Origin of Wine in China for example.

Yi Di and Du Kang are considered the originators of wine-making in China.According to ancient annals Yi Di was ordered by Yu the Great to produce mellow wine fro me fermented glutinous rice.The concoction tasted good and Yi Di was confident he would receive a reward.Yu while agreeing that the drink was of excellent quality and had a good taste stopped short of rewarding its maker.Why? Because the Son of Heaven decided that over indulgence in this new beverage could be dangerous- it could make a person read- the monarch himself lose his wits and inadvertently put the country at risk.

Another wine-maker Du Kang created a formula for high quality liquor made of sorghum..As legend has it one winter he put cultivated sorghum seeds in a hollow.

The following spring he notice d a strong smell coming from it and was amazed to discover that the sorghum he left there had fermented.This accidental disconery inspired Du Kang to create an alcoholic beverage.

1.2 Wine Culture in the West In the west, wine culture is also a richly historical culture.In most time, wine culture refers to grape wine in west countries.“It has a history more than 8000 or at most 10000 years since wine appeared, and much longer than the liquor history in China.”(Li xiaoye, 2010, P8) To western people, wine is a special kind of art and has its glamour.When we meet troubles in our daily life or feel sad, wine can help us become strong and comfort us.So there is no doubt that wine culture is not only a kind of material culture but also a kind of a spiritual culture.Owing to the different cultural backgrounds, the western people’s understanding of the wine culture tends to the symbol of the right and gives it elegant and luxury image.For example, they believe wine can enrich their life and regulate their feelings.Xu Yan (2004) said this view of life can be expreed as drink one’s sorrows/ troubles, drown one’s troubles away, drink down sorrow.Wine culture is the reflection of culture in history and it’s the witne of history.Next, take the Origin of Wine in the West for example.

Greek mythology Dionysus Greek god of wine and fertility identified with the Roman god Bacchus.The son of Zeus and Semele Dionysus was reared by nymphs and taught men the secrets of cultivating grapes and making wine.but Hera struck him with madne and drove him forth a wanderer through various parts of the earth.Dionysus wandered through many lands teaching men the culture of the vine and the mysteries of his cult.The Bible The earliest written account of viniculture is in the Old Testament of the Bible which tells us that Noah planted a vineyard and made wine.Middle Eastern origin an ancient Persian fable credits a lady of the court with the

discovery of wine.This Prince having lost favor with the King attempted to poison herself by eating some table grapes that had spoiled in a jar.She became intoxicated and giddy and fell asleep.When she awoke she found the strees that had made her life intolerable had dispersed.Returning to the source of her relief her subsequent conduct changed so remarkably that she regained the Kings favor.

2.The application of the wine culture 2.1 Types of Wine Baijiu is a typical Chinese wine, while grape wine plays an important role in Western countries.China is a country with a long history and it is no exaggeration to say that Chinese history with five thousand years is written by wine.As China is a large agricultural country, the most wine is brewed with grain.In China, the word is “jiu” can be used to represent all the types of alcoholic beverages, such as beer, grape wine and so on.The most popular wine in China can be claified into two types, namely, yellow wine and white wine.The yellow wine is brewed directly from rice and wheat.The white wine is also brewed grain, but it has a higher purity of the alcohol level.Although China has a lot of techniques to brew wine and there are various types of wine, the grain liquor is always in the important position; this is because of the effect of geographical environment and agricultural culture.China\'s climate is very good for the growth of rice and other grain, as a result, the grain liquor is very prevalent.In the Western countries, no matter when we talk about the western wine, grape wine is always the first one comes to our minds.Grape wine is the major wine and

plays an important role in people’s life.Grape wine has a long history, Qu Xiaohui(1996) said that the Western archaeologists found that people had drank grape wine seven thousand years ago.Western is different from China as a large agricultural country, so most of Western countries develop animal husbandry and busine.But the climatic and soil in many places don’t fit the growth of crops, they are suitable for grape.Grape wine was produced and became more and more popular under this circumstance.With the development of society, there are more types of grape wine, such as whisky, brandy, rum, cocktail and so forth.

2.2 Drinking Veels Where there is wine, there is drinking veel.As the saying goes, if there is no drinking veel, there is no way to drink.So there is no doubt that drinking veel as a part of wine culture has a long history.The development of drinking veel is closely bound up with the national economics; it can reflect a country’s level of development.China always shows great respect for the use of drinking veels.People divided the drinking veels into different categories depending on their usage.In ancient times, due to the low level of social development, people use some natural materials to make drinking veels, such as horns and gourds.With the improvement of productivity and development of the wine industry, there are more types of wine veels, for example, the drinking veels are made of bronze or jade or other materials.What’s more, some drinking veels are made in different shapes, for instance sheep, tiger, cow, rabbit and other animals or landscape.Different shapes of drinking veels not only can help people enjoy the beauty of wine, but also reflects the unique charm of Chinese art.Compared with China\'s drinking veels, West’s has a distinctive flavor.Westerners pay attention to different glaes for different kinds of wine.When they drink whisky, brandy and grape wine, they will prepare the corresponding cups.It is

well known that most western drinking veels are made of gla and crystal, because these cups are good for drinkers to appreciate the wine\'s color and enjoy the beauty of wine.This is indeed the case; the western drinking veels have an elegant appearance as well as the good usage.Nowadays, the glaes become more popular and are carriers to spread the wine culture.2.3 Etiquette of Drinking Wine is a medium to understand the culture of different countries.Knowing the etiquette of drinking can reduce the misunderstandings in social activities and promote communications between peoples.After careful studies, we can find that there are some differences of etiquette of drinking between China and Western countries.China is a country known as ceremony and pay attention to etiquette.Talk freely about the saying “No Custom without Wine”, etiquette of drinking is becoming an important part of life.Chinese drinking etiquette reflects the respect for the drinker.There is fixed seating and a fixed toast times about who is the master, who is the guest.Toast normally chooses after eating the main course, and before the sugar beet is not on.The cup must be held on the eyes level when the toast happen.The toast must begin from the master and watch each other, and at least drink a little wine to show respect.Others are not qualified to respect until the master finished .If the toast order is upset the person who upset the toast order will be fined.Toast must be started from the most distinguished guests, at this time the wine should be full of so that the most distinguished guests can be respected.Not only younger people toast to the elders, and subordinates take the initiative to propose a toast to the higher levels, but also should drink first in order to show respect.The Jiuling, Finger Gueing Game etiquette of wine, but also to make drinkers thoroughly enjoyed themselves.Obviously, Chinese wine culture deeply influenced by Chinese culture and traditional

ethics of hierarchy of seniority, during drinking alcohol the respect for those who drinking was placed in the most important position.Western drinking wine etiquette demonstrates respect for wine.Drinking wine must watch their color, smell their fragrance, taste its quality, and mobilize all kind of sensory to enjoy nice wine.In the sequence of drinking, pay attention to the first drink after drink red wine, white wine, the first lighter wine In the sequence of drinking, it is neceary to pay attention to the order of drinking.White wine should be first and after red wine, the first lighter wine following Re-bodied wine to drink a short year wine and then drink a long year wine, changes gradually in-depth change in the enjoyment of wine flavor.The selection of wine device, also revolve around how to get the full enjoyment of drinking on the drinkers.Let aroma convergence on mouth of the tulip-type goblet cup, and even for wine temperature degree specially designed thermometer, without exception, demonstrate respect for Westerners wine, and their Drinking etiquette is for a better appreciation of wine.In the West people rarely Toast each other, they usually drink separately.Only in certain occasions, they will join in a toast.If a time like this is usually the person after the speech, they are bleing a person, or to celebrate something for someone.2.4 Purpose of Drinking

Wine exists with the form of water and with the content of fire.They are incompatible since ancient times, only an exception on wine .It is water also fire.Not only was extinguished by the minds of unhappy, but also can bright the inner.Both Chinese and westerners love wine, but the diversity of cultures, so caused the difference on drinking purposes between the Chinese people and Westerns.

The purpose of drinking in western is simple.They have a drink in order to enjoy drinking.Of course, wine also has the function of communication, but it is more important for people to enjoy the taste of wine.What kind of drink should be used to

enjoy on a occasion , and what temperature degree should be , what shape of the gla should be, there is a very fine clear requirement.

There is not hing Finger Gueing Game was provided on the banquet. The aesthetic of western is a direct form Style-oriented and do not require to use distiller\'s yeast to achieve communicative effects, showing that the West is drinking for wine .In China, wine is often used as a communicative tool.Therefore, there are not scientific systematic theoretical analysis on Chinese wine culture.More attention was paied on other function s brought by drinking.The so-called ulterior motives are not on wine , but care between landscape and landscape of the music.People who drink often want to discu official busine, or talk to a private matter.In short, drinking is just an expreion of a mood-aisted behavior.People have a drink just want to borrow the role of alcohol to complete a number of other things, so Chinese people will never be le wine on the table.Whether it is Chinese New Year, or a busine in the future, wine is the middle of the hub of everything.It also links to the subtle emotions between people, but people rely more on drinking is the pursuit of wine.Qingmeizhujiu is to prove who is the hero.The paradis Jiang Jinjiu purpose to eliminate the same melancholy; Bamboo Poets of the Seven Sages was to take sanctuary.Qianlong 1000 gentleman feast want to share happy with the public.Chinese people drinking is not for alcohol but for feelings.Therefore, so long as having appropriate reasons, everyone can advise each other to drink, in order to show goodwill and sincerity .Toast is a typical performance of Chinese hospitality, but often is not understood by Westerners on the Chinese people.China is the ceremonies.The communication is usually advocated implicitly.They are not bounded, not only can speak, also can criticize after drinking alhtough there is nothing to speak usually.Wine can help Chinese people to achieve communicative purposes.

2.5 Drinking Habits Several major Chinese festival of the year have a corresponding drinking activities, such as the Dragon Boat Festival drink \"calamus wine\".Suspended drink \"chrysanthemum wine\".In some places, such as Jiangxi, people gathered to drink after planting the cereal crop or to celebrate the harvest time.Chinese New Year also is known as New Year\'s Eve.It is the day for family reunion to have the most sumptuous dinner of the year.Dinner and wine are eential to the even poorest family.In some places, people generally do not leave the house on the first day of the first lunar month.From the second day, people begin to drop around.The owner of the house takes the dishes which have been prepared earlier to the table and enjoy the wine with the guests.“liquor of daughter in the south\" According to the earliest record by the \"Southern Graes\" that the southern people began to make wine when their daughter was seven years old.Then they bury the brewed wine when their daughter got married.This kind of wine was inherited in Shaoxing and developed to be famous as \"Huadiao jiu\".Another difference exists in the custom of drinking wine.As is known to us, China is a big country with 56 nationalities and vast territory.Most of the nations have its own distinctive wine and custom of drinking wine.However, there still exists the common character: encouraging people to drink.While in western countries, no one will encourage you to drink.It is up to you to drink or not.No one would aociate toasting people with the face.If there exists buying wine culture, that is, today I buy the wine for you in a bar; tomorrow you will buy for me.

Wine culture brings about the difference of ideology of flows.Wine culture that caused great affection on the east and west civilization is embodied in the feminism.In the west, fete is an important means of worship of wine.The housewives and girls gathered in wild mountains to dance and enjoy themselves the whole night.Women could communicate with any people.Although the man was discontented with this, he could not have any complaints.This tradition was handed down.As a result, women got almost the same status with the man in the west.The worship of wine came along with the mysterious worship of maternity, which rippled in the civilization of the west.It was not the case in China.Although at the beginning, the wine was brewed for the daughter of Yu, women were deprived of right of drinking wine by man.The girls

in The Dream of Red Mansion mostly drank fruit wine.The liquor, repetitive of wine, was the patent of men, such as Jia Zheng.The status of women was gradually promoted after the spread of western culture during the period of Fourth Five.Women have the same right of drinking wine in modern times.

3.Different Communicative Functions and Drinking Culture 3.1 Shallow Sip and Cattle Drink

Chinese people pay attention to the “shallow sip”.The so called“shallow sip”is to put the gla in one hand and enjoy the fun by singing a song or poem to purse the realm into a little drunk.The so called little drunk is like non-drunk and non-awake, with a rather wonderful feeling to get high in the realm.We Chinese people will take a little drunk while talking with our friends or family and have a good time.

The Westerners pay attention to “cattle drink”, the so called “cattle drink” also described as the “drink by”.That is, no matter one battle or one gla, just raise your neck to drink it overturned.They enjoy the excitement that the wine brings to them.3.2 Masculinity and Feminism

Chinese wine culture is the doctrine of partial male.Since ancient times, “wine” was always used by men as the signboard and mask of their entertainment .By the “wine” of power, things will line.Things can be done easier by the power of wine.CaoCao used wine to test whether troops under his command were loyal to him.Wine and beauty seem always to go together; both are men’s tool to release their preure.Actually, with the collapse of the feudalism, women were no longer regarded as men’s vaal.Neverthele, in most case, women are often still at arm’s length speak of love.

The western wine culture joined more feminist factors and is relatively neutral.In western countries, there is not only spirits for men but also cocktails and champagne with a sweet or fruity taste and beautiful color for women to drink.Female drinking is socially accepted, and fends to be neutral on the whole.

3.3

Lyricism and Enjoyment

China, the scenic spot of wine culture, the significance of drinking wine is far more than the sensual pleasure.In many occasions, wine is used as a cultural symbol to represent a ritual, a state of mind.Wine and poetry, had the tight relationship from then on.In China, The wine is often used as a communication tool, a medium to expre feelings after drinking.The so called the drinker’s heart is not in the cup but in people and in love.Such as to make the plum wine is in order to prove who is the real hero; to drink one more cup of wine is to bid farewell to the friend going away.Different feeling and different mood are paed through the wine.

In the western countries, the purpose of drink is often very simple, to enjoy the wine and alcohol.Of course, the red wine in the west also has the function of communication, but it is more of a pursuit of how to enjoy the taste.It can be seen that the Western wine culture focus more on the wine itself while we Chinese people seem to pay more attention to the spiritual experience after evaporation or distillation of the wine.Western habit of tasting wine is to taste with their tongue, while we Chinese people use more of a heart and brain to feel the feeling the wine bring us.

4 The Way to Promote the Intercommunication of Wine Culture 4.1.Launching International Communication Conference

The development of world wine culture depends on the intercommunication of different nations.On this matter, I give several suggestions as following: Firstly, we should launch international communication conference about research of wine culture.At present, the research communication between profeors and experts in especially French, Germany, and England and so on is little.Profeors and experts exchange their ideas and views about wine and put forward new suggestions.It is an important and direct way to push the development

of wine culture.Secondly, a worldwide organization should be set up to harmonize and guide the deed acted by nations.Regions and nations behave according to the rules regulated.4.2.Setting the Suitable Rules

As we know, a proverb says without rules we cannot do things well.Thus it is neceary and important to set the suitable rules.Nations can communicate and behave well with the restrictions.However, the rules are not set now, which needs the efforts of the profeors and experts.4.3 Innovation

Wine culture can not develop without innovation which is the gist of wine culture.China has a long history of brewing wine, which is proud by us.Meanwhile, we indulge ourselves in the succe we have had and depend on the traditional wine culture exceively.Therefore, crisis is there.In order to keep the booming vitality of wine, obviously, the innovation is crucial.But what we should do innovate the wine culture.In my point of view, we should do as the following: To begin with, the combination of innovation of wine and idea.The consumption psychology of people is always changing.There is an increasing demand about the safety and sanitation of wine.The idea of green consumption occurs to people.As a result, we not only cater to the demand of trend, but also put our feet in the consumer\'s shoes.Secondly, the combination of innovation and technology.The innovation of culture can not; eave the development of technology.The big innovation and development of many profeions is caused by the innovation of technology.The innovation of technology and technique push the development of the profeion of brewing wine vigorously and base the solid foundation of the innovation of wine culture.Thirdly, the combination of innovation of wine culture and the management of firm.The history of abroad or domestic management of firm can be subdivided into three stages: \"experimental management\" \"scientific management\" and \"cultural management\".It realized the big leap on management from experimental one to Tylor\'s scientific one.However, scientific management neglects the creativity and ability of man, which can not fit the demand of development.Thus, cultural management came into being.That whether the wine culture is a succe or a failure is aociated with the leader of the enterprise.The runner of the wine firm is different from the leader of the firm of making screwdriver.He should be an artist with high quality of culture and artistic taste.The fierce competition demands that they give direction and decision on the design of products, the direction of market, the selling

and plan of market.It is also neceary for them to carry out the cultural management and innovation of management and make full use of resources including resource of mankind to infuse the color of culture in the product.Make sure the realization of innovation of wine culture succefully through innovation of management.This is one aspect and another aspect is that: In the first place, transfer the advantage of culture into the advantage of market.Transmitting culture is to exploit the market.The core of the wine market is health; safety and fashion which the enterprises need long time of penetration of culture and patient and dedicate cultivation of market.It advocates drinking wine in a scientific way and green consumption to guide man return to rationalism from the traditional wine culture, which advocates drinking wine in great amount.In the second place, transfer the advantage of market into the advantage of economic, society and zoology.The advantage of economic is the final embodiment of the advantage of market.Promoting the additional value of wine culture is a significant way to transfer the advantage of market into the advantage of economic.At the same time, it requires shat the effectivene of society and zoology should be taken into account.We should strengthen the idea of sustaining development of firm and carry out green management and controlling of whole proce and protect the mature during the proce of carrying out the innovation of wine culture.Therefore, the vitality of wine lies in wine culture and fitting the progreive consumption culture, which is to keep pace with time.

Conclusion The wine is the best present that God has given.Wine culture comes along with the birth of wine since wine appeared.Due to the difference of wine, regions and environment, the faith brought by wine culture also has more or le difference.At first, the wine in China was the sweet wine made from fruits.After that, man gradually found the grain which was used as the raw material of liquor.It was much better than sweet wine either in power or taste.Therefore, it is the mainstream to brew wine with grain as the raw material.At present, it refers to liquor when it comes to the wine of China.However, the wine in the west was brewed with barley the raw material firstly.Man began to brew wine with grape.The wine made man intoxicated and gradually became the mainstream of the west.And now, it refers to champagne and Brandy wit grape as the raw material.Drinking wine in China is the common phenomenon of different nations.Most of nations have its own characteristic wine

and custom of drinking wine.The culture of drinking wine has endurable vitality and character.The research of drinking custom will promote the unity of nations and progre of civilization.In order to communicate with the consumer, it is neceary to promote the development of wine culture.The wine can popularize wildly and sell best according to the taste of consumer.The brewed wine is to be consumed by man.Consequently, people\'s suggestion about the way of brewing wine is vital, which is to make sure the wine is consumed with confirmation and agreement of consumer.Intercommunication is also crucial to the development of wine culture.Thus, increasing international communication is eential.Profeors and experts can exchange their views and put forward new ideas about innovation of technology.A worldwide organization restrains the behavior of the members.Through this topic, the profound Chinese culture during the course of investigations will be appreciated.Consequently the Chinese wine culture will develop along with the development of the world wine culture.

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第15篇：大学物理实验对比教学研究论文

1大学物理实验教学现状分析

大学物理实验分为基础性实验、综合性实验和设计性实验。理想的实验教学模式应该是分层次教学模式，按照先开设基础性实验，再开设综合性实验，最后开设设计性实验的顺序授课，这样安排由浅入深、循序渐进，利于教学活动的展开，可以有效的培养学生的动手能力、创新能力以及对实验数据的处理和分析能力。而现实情况却给这种教学模式提出一些难以解决的问题：

（1）随着多年扩招，学生人数逐年递增，仪器数目的增长远不及学生人数的增长，而在上课时为保证教学效果一台仪器最多容纳两名同学同时使用，仪器数目严重制约着上课学生的人数，一个实验一般只能保证有一个班或者半个班的学生来做；

（2）大学物理实验一次课为3学时，同一个实验一天最多只能排三次课，即上午、下午和晚上各上一次课，那么一个实验一周最多只能重复15次左右。如果所有的班级都按同样的顺序来上实验课，对于大部分高校来说每个实验每周要重复的次数都大于15次，这样在排课上就会出现困难。为了解决这个问题，大部分高校目前都采用轮转授课的方式来排课，即各实验室同时开课，然后各班在实验室之间进行轮转。由于学时的限制，大部分高校的大学物理实验只开两个学期甚至有个别学校只开一个学期，这样就会出现一学期的实验课包含三类实验中的两类或者三类的情况。如果轮转授课，那么就很难保证让所有学生都先做基础性实验，再做综合性实验，最后做设计性实验，也就是说必然有部分学生打破理想的上课顺序，这样分层次教学模式就很难实行了。另外，由于在中学阶段各地区、各学校对实验课的重视程度不同，导致刚入校大学生的实验基础及实验能力差异较大。而大学物理实验课是大学生最先接触的实验课之一，所以我们在授课时必须考虑到这个差异。而在传统教学模式下，教师在实验课上对所有学生的要求是完全一致的，没有任何差异。这样就会使学生出现两种极端，部分实验能力强的学生迅速完成实验，而部分实验能力差的学生需要他人帮忙或是延长时间才能完成实验，甚至有个别学生为完成实验选择抄袭其它同学的实验数据。长此以往，实验能力强的学生会认为实验课程过于简单，学不到多少知识，对自己的能力提高没有帮助，会逐渐对物理实验课程失去兴趣；实验能力差的学生由于经常不能独立完成实验，会认为课程太难，自己无法掌握，在逐渐丧失自信心的同时势必对物理实验课程提不起兴趣。在传统教学模式下，两类极端的学生都会逐渐丧失对实验课程的兴趣，显然不利于学生动手能力、创新能力等的培养，一种新的教学模式的提出迫在眉睫。

2对比教学模式

通过以上分析，我们需要在无法实行分层次教学模式的情况下，提出一种新的教学模式，而且这种教学模式要既能满足大多数学生的学习要求，又兼顾两类极端学生的学习要求，更广泛的激发学生的学习兴趣。为此我们提出对比教学模式。

2.1演示实验和课堂实验的对比

在实验课前增加演示实验内容，学生通过观察或亲自参与有趣的演示实验，会对接下来要做实验产生强烈的兴趣。如：做全息照相实验时，演示白光再现全息照片；做测量物体的转动惯量实验时，让学生参与演示茹科夫斯基凳；做受迫振动实验时，让学生参与演示鱼洗盆等。学生在完成实验以后，通过与演示实验的对比可以引发更多的思考。

（1）在全息照相实验前演示白光再现全息照片，而各高校在实验中做的基本都是激光再现全息照片。做完全息照相实验以后，学生会发现自己的照片无法在白光下直接观测，而需要在激光下观测。这时学生就会产生疑问，为什么不让我们拍摄能直接在白光下观测的白光再现全息照片，这样观测起来不是更方便吗？此时教师可以让学生课后查找相关资料，然后在实验报告上解释这个问题。通过这样带着疑问去学习的过程，学生对全息照相的理解会更加深刻。

（2）在测量物体的转动惯量实验前，学生参与演示茹科夫斯基凳时，双臂平伸凳子转速减慢，双臂收缩凳子转速加快。通过分析可以知道双臂平伸时转动惯量大，双臂收缩时转动惯量小，最终得出结论：总质量一定的情况下，质量分布离转轴越远，转动惯量越大。做实验时给学生提供的塑料圆柱、金属圆桶和实心球的质量基本一样，让学生做完实验来验证上面的结论是否正确。学生怀着好奇心，在做实验时就会更加认真，更有利于其能力的培养。

2.2多种实验方案的对比

许多实验都有多种实验方案，如：声速的测量、测细丝直径、电桥测电阻等。我们可以在实验条件允许的情况下，鼓励学生尽可能多的采用多种方案来做实验，以激发学生的创新意识，对实验能力不同的学生做不同要求，更能有效的培养他们的动手能力和创新能力。下面是一些具体的做法。

（1）在全息照相实验中采用难易不同的两种光路进行照相。实验能力强的学生可以选择用传统光路进行实验，通过认真调节、精确计算，使光路满足以下三个条件：参考光和物光的光程相差不太大，不大于所用激光的相干长度；参考光和物光的夹角在20°～30°之间；参考光与物光的光强比为3∶1～5∶1之间。实验能力弱的学生可以选择用简化光路进行实验，此光路经过简单调节就可以满足上面提到的三个条件。采用以上做法，可以让所有学生都能自己动手完成实验，实验能力都得到了一定程度的培养。实验完成以后，可以组织学生对两种光路进行对比分析，如对两种光路实验结果进行对比，可以发现用简化光路的实验成功率比较高，经过分析可以发现：①简化光路中的光学元件个数比传统光路少，由9个减少为5个，所以外界振动对实验的影响也较传统光路要小，故而照相成功率高。②简化光路容易调节，学生只需要调节感光底板和物体的位置及角度就可以使参考光和物光的光程差、夹角和光强比在都在合适的范围内。而传统光路中光学元件较多，调节比较复杂，经常需要反复调节，中间过程如果某些地方没注意，导致某个条件没得到满足，实验就会失败，观察不到全息照片。也可以组织同学讨论简化光路与传统光路的适用情况，利用简化光路拍摄表面凸凹程度小的物品效果较好，如：钥匙、硬币等。简化光路不但可以拍摄反光性好的金属材料，也可以拍摄反光性差的塑料材料如中性笔笔帽等。而对于表面凹凸差距比较大的物体采用传统光路拍摄的效果较好。通过这样的分析过程，学生的分析能力可以得到提高。

（2）除了以上介绍的做法还可以让学生在实验过程中作如下对比，如：在测量声速时，可以对行波法和驻波法进行对比；在测量液体密度时，可对让静力称衡法和比重瓶法进行对比；在测量金属材料弹性模量时可以对静态拉伸法和动态悬挂法进行对比等。在多种实验方案对比教学的过程中，教师不但要注意引导学生选用不同实验方案，更要注重组织学生对实验方案进行分析。这样才能使学生将所学的理论与实验操作相结合，在不断的分析过程中找到操作过程中的不足，进而提高学生分析问题解决问题的能力。

3对比教学模式的评价体系

在采取多种实验方案对比教学的时候，由于供学生选择的实验方案不是唯一的，各种方案的难易程度未必相同。这种情况下如果没有一个合理的评分标准，学生为快速完成实验往往会选择容易的实验方案，这样就达不到预期的教学效果。所以在给出学生成绩时，必须充分考虑实验方案的难易程度，才能达到较好的教学效果，准确体现学生的实验水平。我们根据学生选择实验方案的难易程度在评分时引入权重系数，课堂实验分数=对所选实验方案进行实验操作得分×权重系数。由于各实验所涉及的实验方案难度不同，所以权重系数并不是一个定值，而是根据实验的特点分成几种情况。

（1）对于两种实验方案难度相近，实验操作难度低的实验，两种方案都做权重系数为1，只用一种方案为0.6。

（2）对于两种实验方案难度相近，操作难度高的实验，两种方案都做权重系数为1，只用一种方案为0.8。

（3）对于两种实验方案难度明显不同的实验，两种方案都做权重系数为1，选择难的实验方案的为0.9，选择简单实验方案的为06。权重值由教师在课前给出，学生可根据自己的水平及想要取得的成绩选择实验方案。为了鼓励学生勇于创新、积极思考，学生在实验时有创新或在实验后能对实验方案进行深入分析时，可以给其适当加分。

4结语

教学实践证明，通过课堂实验和演示实验的对比、多种实验方法的对比以及合理的评分方法，学生对实验课的兴趣和做实验的积极性都得到了提高。实验能力强的学生采用多种实验方案的机会多，在对各实验方案对比分析过程中收获较多，相应的实验成绩也较高。实验能力差的学生，也能为取得较好的成绩积极努力，在讨论环节更加用心，任课教师如果能及时对他们的表现进行肯定，再适当鼓励，这些学生也能逐渐融入课堂。甚至有一部分同学看到了自己在理论方面的优势，在操作过程中注重理论分析，以理论带动实践，不但能很好的完成实验还能提出创新方案也取得了不错的成绩。

第16篇：著作对比论文的优势（推荐）

著作对比论文的优势

（一）论文与著作的定义

我们常提及的论文就是在同时具有ISSN和CN刊号的媒介上发表的用来进行科学研究和描述科研成果的文章，它既是探讨问题进行科学研究的一种手段，又是描述科研成果进行学术交流的一种工具。 我们常提及的专著，即专门著作，是作者通过出版机构对某一学科或某一专门课题进行全面系统论述的著作，必须具有双号，即ISBN和CIP号。

（二）论文与著作的作用

论文和著作的数量和质量反映了一个单位的科研学术水平，是高校、医院、科研机构排名的重要参数，也是科技工作考核和职称评聘的重要依据。

（三）论文与著作的优势对比 1.可操作难度小，准入要求低

现在的职称晋升一般地区政策都要求至少3到5篇论文，且其中必须有一到多篇具备一定学术价值的核心期刊类论文。此类论文要求高，而核心期刊量少，审稿严谨，准入标准高，可操作难度大，花费也不菲。

而专著出版工作由我公司全权代理，不论出版社级别是国家级还是省级，需求是主编还是副主编编委，字数的多少，学术水平的高低，相对容易操作。为解决学术著作出版难的问题，为学者、研究人员排忧解难，我单位以快捷、科学的办法运作出版，降低出版成本，提高出版质量与效率，为学者和研究人员提供个性化的、全程式的出版服务。 2.学术时效长

论文一般只有一年时效，每年发表多篇幅的论文实际投入更多，但著作一般都具有3~5年的时效，且学术价值不低于论文。 3.无风险压力

当前，由于论文抄袭、造假严重，论文的发表备受社会舆论的关注，因此论文审查发表制度必将更加严格，绝大多数期刊都已收录于中国知网、万方数据库、维普数据库等文献检索数据库，在进行SCI等软件检索核对时易造成不必要的麻烦。 而我公司代理的医学图书全部经过编辑人员呕心协作，杜绝任何雷同，因此无任何风险压力，一切流程合法合理合规。 4.更省心省力

学术著作惟有出版才能彰显它的价值，作者的真知灼见才为人知晓。出版学术著作是学者、研究人员最大的心愿，也是他们晋升的重要筹码。然而，学者和研究人员往往潜心进行学术研究，而无暇顾及学术著作的出版工作，更别说为自己花费了大量心血的著作找个合适的出版社了。著作的出版流程全权交付与出版商代理，从组稿到编辑校对到印刷出版整个过程实际投入时间与精力要较论文省得多。 5.其他效果

在相对无著作具体政策要求的地方，出具同等材料的情形下、晋升职称或岗位竞聘时多拥有一部精心著作，将极大的提高您的加分效果、评审团印象分等。 6.个人价值

出版著作大大提升个人知名度，系统整理个人学术价值较高的心得等，对医学传承和社会发展发挥个人热度

第17篇：英汉对比与翻译课程论文

英汉对比与翻译课程论文

题目：科技英语中专业术语的翻译规律

姓名：沈凡

学号：2011213403

主修专业：电子信息科学与技术

辅修专业：英语

科技英语中专业术语的翻译规律

沈凡

（电子信息科学与技术专业，学号：2011213403）

摘要：科技英语中专业术语的翻译一直是科技工作者的一个难题，本文从科技术语的构成、翻译原则和翻译方法等三个方面探讨专业术语的翻译规律。

关键词：科技英语；专业术语，翻译原则，翻译方法

一、引言

科学文化交流中，翻译活动是最重要的手段之一，而在翻译活动中科技术语的翻译是任何一个翻译工作者必须面临的一个难题。专业术语是指某一学科领域所特有或专用的词汇，它描述了该领域特有的事物和现象，我们接触该领域，也就意味着必须接触该领域的专业术语。由于各种原因，科技术语的国际语言是英语，所以我们必须了解科技英语中专业术语的翻译规律，让科学文化的交流不受语言的障碍。

二、科技术语的构成

分析科技术语的构成方式有助于我们更加准确的翻译科技文章。科技术语的构成方式有很多，主要有：

1.派生

派生法通过给词根或单词增加一个或多个词素或词缀形成新术语。如： multi-（多)+media（媒体）=multimedia（多媒体）

hard（硬的）+-ware（部件）=hardware（硬件）

2.合成

合成又称复合，是将已存在的词或词素结合构成新的词。

object-oriented面向对象的

website网页

3.缩略

缩略词是将较长的英语单词取其首部或者主子构成与原词同义的短单词，或者将组成词汇短语的各个单子的首字母拼接成为一个大写字母的字符串。 math=mathematics数学

ad.=advertisement广告

LAN(local area network)局域网

4.旧词赋新意

旧词赋新意就是对已存在的词赋予新的意义创新术语。如：

memory普通语意为“记忆力”，而在电子技术中引申为“存储器”； monitor愿意为“班长”，而在计算机科学中为“监视器，显示器”。

5.借用

借用是指一种语言中存在的术语或概念被引入到另一语言中。如：中文“黑客”借用英文“Hacker”，英文“gelivable”借用中文“给力”。

三、我国科技术语的翻译原则

每个人在翻译过程中都有自己的方法和见解，会导致翻译的科技术语存在不统一的现象。因此，有必要为科学术语的翻译制定一个准则。有关学者认为， 术语定名要遵循科学性、系统性、单义性、简明性、中文特性和国际性。

1.科学性原则

科学性就是从科学概念出发，准确反映所指事物的特征，根据概念的全部特征来掌握事物的内涵，借以作出确切的定义和定出“名副其实”的定义。

2.系统性原则

系统性就是在一个学科、以致相关领域中，术语不是孤立的、随机的，而是一个合乎分类学的有机组成部分。如：highway、expreway、freeway过去都译为“高速公路”, 现在分别译为“公路”、“快速路”、“高速公路”。

3.单义性原则

单义性是讲任何一个概念只能有一个专门固定的术语，即“一词一义”。如：地理学中的overlandflow 曾被翻译为“坡面水流”、“坡面漫流”、“陆面水流”、“地面径流”、“表面水流”等8 个词, 现在统一为“坡面流”。

4简明性原则

简明性是指术语简单明了，尽可能简短，但又不应简化到人们不好看懂。如：radiodetectingranging 意思是“无线电探测与定位”, 按英文词首radar 音译定名为“雷达”。

5.中文特性原则

中文特性是指术语定名要体现汉语表意文字的特点。如：物理学名词damping 的汉译过程中, 有译为“减幅”、“阻迟”等说, 均欠贴切。物理学家杨肇宁先生偶发奇想, 得“尼”字有“逐步减阻”之意, 遂译为“阻尼”, 应用巧妙得体, 沿用至今。

6.国际性原则

国际性原则是指术语定名尽可能采用国际通用的术语和符号。如：采用音译的方法, 把clone 翻译成“克隆”等, 这样便于在国际交往中对等互译。

翻译工作者只有按照相同的标准，遵循共同的原则，才能是科技术语统一，便于科学文化的交流。

四、科技术语的一般翻译方法

翻译英文科技术语，从古到今，有关学者已经做了相当深入的探索，现将其总结大约有十几种方法，即：意译、音译、半音半意译、音译兼意译、形译、借用、按外文字母译、造新字、简称和采用外文缩写等。

1.意译法

意译就是对原词所表达的具体事物和概念进行仔细推敲，以准确译出该词的科学概念。这种译法最为普遍。由于汉语是表义语言，因此意译是翻译科技术语的首选方法，在可能的情况下，科技术语应采用意译法。例如：

high technology高科技

holography 全息摄影术

bulletin board system(BBS) 电子公告板

the knowledge economy 知识经济

videophone 可视电话

E- mail电子邮件

2.音译法

音译法:对于像计量单位、科技发明、材料、化学品名称等这样的技术术语，一般应使用音译法进行翻译。例如：

ohm欧姆

calorie卡路里

joule 焦耳

nylon 尼龙

Vaseline 凡士林

radar雷达

3.意译、音译共用法

对于有些技术术语来说,它们既有意译名,又有音译名,二者同时使用。例如： vitamin 维生素(意) / 维他命(音)

penicillin青霉素/ 盘尼西林

engine 发动机/ 引擎

microphone 话筒/ 麦克风

4.形译法

形译法多用于用字母表示其外形的技术术语的翻译，例如：

I-bar工字钢，工字条

U-iron槽铁

O-ring环行圈

V-belt三角皮带

T-square丁字尺

5.按外文字母译法

以某个字母代替某种概念时，可直接将字母译出。例如：

X-ray X光

a-iron a铁

Y-ray Y射线

p-n-p junction p-n-p结

6．造新字

主要指翻译化学元素等采用的方法。如：

oxygen 氧（O）

hydrogen 氢（H）

tritium 氚（T）

antimony 锑（Sb）

7.直接采用外文，如

Windows 98 ,Word 2000 ,Office star ,等。

8.简称

这一方法主要用于翻译外国人名表达的术语

Celsius’thermometer 摄氏温度计

Vickers hardne 维氏硬度

由于汉语史表意文字，所以从发展趋势上看，意译科技术语占主流，但是实

际翻译中要根据不同的术语，选择不同的翻译方法，甚至几种翻译方法一起使用，相辅相成，达到最好的翻译效果。

五、结语

科技英语中专业术语的翻译是一个艰难的工作，翻译者必须同时具备相关的专业知识和英语能力。因此，翻译者须不断地拓宽知识面，掌握英语翻译的基础知识，培养基本能力。译者应该本着为科学文化的传播和发展做贡献的思想努力追求“最好的翻译”。

参考文献：

[1] 华先发.新实用英译汉教程.上海外语教育出版社,2011

[2] 熊兵.英汉对比与翻译导论.华中师范大学出版社,2012

[3] 李亚舒等.科技翻译论著集萃.中国科学技术出版社,1994

第18篇：中西电影文化对比论文(英文版)

If we consider the western movie culture’s development is a development of technology, we can also call the development of Chinese movie as a development of thought.We can see so many differences between them from every aspect.At first, the themes of the films are different.We can see almost everything from the film, sometimes directors convey not only one thought, and some others try to discu problems which should be thought by us carefully.But for Chinese films, themes seems more realistic——the family, friendships, love, conflicts, betray… Chinese movies focus more on the society but not the individuality.they want to expre some common phenomenon or current affairs in their movies.To sum up, Chinese movies are more emotional, while western movies are more logical.That’s because our Chinese always focus on morality, and western people tend to analyses things with science.Another difference is the technology.In fact we always cannot believe that our country can release a marvel movie like the Lord of the Ring, because we don’t have such technology.Though since Hollywood movies began to be familiar to us, we started to learn from them.Hollywood movies care more about their special effects, and they will pay a large part of their fees to make it more real.That means from those movies, we can see another world we haven’t imagined! For the lack of technology, Chinese movies only can compete against with them by plots.However, Chinese movies nowadays seem never care about how terrible their plots are.Good stories are rare, but we have.Just like Farewell My Concubine, its value can also be appreciated by foreigners.That’s a typical Chinese movie which shows an age for us.The western movies always have a style of individuality.That’s what different from us.We always have awarene that all of us are a group, while western advocate the individualistic heroism.So many superhero movies such as Superman, Batman, they praise the perfect and adventurous mind of heroes.For China, we have different conception for hero——hero is who can sacrifice themselves in the danger and never give in to evil, even though he is a common people.So that we have lots of movies described the life of common people, they may be not handsome, not rich, not so strong, even have some bad habits, but they have their principles, and strive to fight with fate.Despite those factories, we can also see something from the western directors.They always find some new ways to expre them.From the silent movie to sound movie, from the black-and-white movie to color movie, from real characteristics to roles who created by computer.All of those revolutions mean their creative minds.Some claical movies maybe very old-fashioned now, but for the age they produced, they pioneered the age.We just lack such ideas.That’s why our movies falls now, since we always imitate those movies which surprised us, but seldom create a completely new Chinese style movie.We also have so many things to learn.To learn from western movies, isn’t mean give up our traditional ideas.In fact, now more and more foreigners begin to be interested in Chinese culture, and put them into their movies, most of them caught world’s eyes, like Kung Fu Panda, Mulan.The cro cultural exchange in movies proves that our traditions are still alive and popular.That’s also a suggestion that Hollywood needs more themes that now.People may feel tired about western movies, and they are also searching a new way.The foreign culture seems a great way to convey more interesting thoughts for people.Hollywood can learn from us, and we also can learn from them.Some movies such as Guasha , they discued the problems and differences between Chinese and western, give a new view about the cultural fusion.Through simple but interesting family stories, make us have a new conception about Chinese in America.That’s also a creative thought which we study from western.To find the ideas about other cultures, is a chance to understand foreign culture, also a way to complete our own culture.

第19篇：食品业国内竞争力对比论文（推荐）

一、食品工业的界定

食品工业是关系国计民生的“生命工业”，按照国际分类标准，食品工业包括农副食品加工业、食品制造业、饮料制造业和烟草制品业四个大门类，进而又分为24个中门类和64个小门类。农副食品加工业主要包括粮油加工、水产品加工、果蔬加工、畜禽蛋加工及豆制品加工等;食品制造业主要包括焙烤食品、面制品、罐头、乳制品、调味品、糖果及食品添加剂等;饮料制造业主要包括酒精饮料、固体饮料、软饮料及精制茶加工等;烟草制品业主要包括烟叶复烤、卷烟制造和其他烟草制品加工，等等。

二、河南食品工业国内现状比较

1．河南食品工业各经济指标的国内比较

考虑数据的可获得性和时滞性，本文采用2007年《中国工业经济统计年鉴》的数据进行河南食品工业的国内比较分析。同时，由于青海和西藏食品工业的落后，数据资料不全，故本文分析中均省略。通过对全国各省份食品工业4大行业数据的整理分析发现，2007年河南食品工业的主要经济指标在国内的比较现状如下表1。从表1可以看出河南企业单位数、工业总产值、工业销售产值、工业增加值、主营业务收入、利息支出、利润总额、全部从业人员平均人数、固定资产净值年平均余额、固定资产净值、成本费用总额等11项指标均全国排名第2位，仅次于山东;固定资产原价仅次于山东、广东排第3位;资产合计、本年应交增值税排名第4位，次于山东、广东、云南;这里值得注意的是全员劳动生产率在全国仅排名21位，这说明河南食品工业的产出效率很低，处于全国落后水平。

2．河南食品工业比重的国内比较

河南省2007年食品工业各项经济指标在全国同行业所占比重如表2所示，企业单位数、工业总产值、工业销售产值、工业增加值、资产合计、流动资产年平均余额、主营业务收入、主营业务税金及附加、利息支出、利润总额本年应交增值税、全部从业人员平均人数、固定资产原价、固定资产净值、固定资产净值年平均余额、成本费用总额、等各项经济指标在全国的比重均在5%以上，其中利润总额占到全国的12．02%，仅有出口交货值的比重低一些，也达到了1．54%。这充分表明，河南食品工业在全国同行业中占据了重要位置，是食品工业大省。

三、河南食品工业国内竞争力的主成分分析

1．分析方法

主成分分析法(PrincipalComponentAnalysis)是为了使问题简单化、直觉化被广泛应用于医学、心理学和经济学等领域的一种统计分析方法。该方法为了全面系统的分析问题，从众多的相关数据信息中，通过浓缩信息，指标降维，导出几个主分量，并尽可能完整地保留原始信息，且彼此间不相关，从而寻找出代表信息的综合指标，对综合指针报蕴藏的信息适当解释，以揭示事物深层次的内在规律。由于它所反映河南食品工业竞争力的指标比较多，因此进行竞争力的比较分析必须采用多指标。由于主成分分析是一种实用的多元统计分析方法，能较好地消除指标样本之间的相关性，在保持样本主要指标信息的前提下，可以提取少量具有代表性的主成分。本文应用这一方法，研究河南食品工业国内竞争力比较。根据所构建的评价指标体系，应用主成分分析法比较分析各省份指标要素，并计算各要素的得分，计算出各省份的竞争力综合得分，以评价河南食品工业在全国的竞争位置。

2．研究样本和数据

以河南省食品工业为样本，根据2007《中国工业经济统计年鉴》提供的数据，运用SPSS16．0为工具，对食品工业4大门类:农副食品加工业、食品制造业、饮料制造业和烟草制品业(按照国际分类标准)中以下经济指标:企业单位数(X1)、工业总产值(X2)、工业销售产值(X3)、出口交货值(X4)、工业增加值(X5)、资产合计(X6)、流动资产年平均余额(X7)、主营业务收入(X8)、主营业务税金及附加(X9)、利息支出(X10)、利润总额(X11)、本年应交增值税(X12)、全部从业人员平均人数(X13)、固定资产原价(X14)、固定资产净值(X15)、固定资产净值年平均余额(X16)、全员劳动生产率(X17)、成本费用总额(X18)等指标进行主成分分析，得出各省份由单向指标共同作用的综合分值，对河南食品工业的竞争优势进行国内比较。其中全员劳动生产率=工业增加值/全部从业人员平均人数，成本费用总额=主营业务成本+管理费用。

3．河南食品工业国内竞争力评价

用SPSS16．0对以上所选指标的数据进行主成分分析，按照主成分对应的特征值大于1原则提取主成分，通过方差分解主成分提取分析可知，在所有因子中，第一个因子的特征值为16．866，方差贡献率为93．697%;第二个因子的特征值为1．007，方差贡献率为5．597%。两个因子累积贡献率为99．294%，能够较全面地反映所有信息。因此，提取第一、第二个因子即可满足分析需要。由主成分分析可知，在主成分F1上的载荷除指标全员劳动生产率外，其余均大于0．95以上，因此可知因子1主要由除全员劳动生产率以外的所有指标变量决定，反映了食品工业的总体规模竞实力。变量全员劳动生产率作用在主成分F2上的载荷值为0．999，说明主成分2主要由全员劳动生产率决定，代表总体效率竞争实力。

四、结论

从总体上看，河南食品工业总体规模竞争力很高，排在全国第2位，综合竞争力也处于中等水平，具有较强的产业基础。但总体效率竞争力水平较低，排全国第20位，这说明河南食品工业的产业基础较强，但竞争优势主要建立在原料丰富，要素成本低等低层次的要素上。因为，河南有丰富的劳动力资源，承接产业转移相对沿海省份来说，在劳动力、原料、能源等要素上成本也普遍偏低，具有综合成本优势。但产业升级、技术升级的步伐较为缓慢，行业技术水平整体偏低。目前，河南食品工业处于由产品粗加工和劳动密集型为主向深加工和资金、技术密集型转型过程中，产业整体装备和技术水平不高，具有较高附加值、深加工和技术密集型的产品少，产业链延伸慢。同时，由于原料利用过分本地化，外省高附加值、低成本原料利用较少，造成增值率不高、成本大、产品结构过于单一等问题，导致河南食品工业总体产出效率较低。因此，河南食品工业今后要进行技术创新，提升产业整体装备和技术水平，完善科技创新机制，提高企业创新能力，引导企业加大自主创新投入，构建以企业为主体的技术创新体系，依托食品学科高等院校和研究机构，加强技术支撑能力。推进产业集聚和融合发展，培育优势企业，从依靠规模为主向依靠技术进步和品牌为支撑的集约化方向转变，实现更大规模、更高水平的发展，在提升产业产出效率竞争力的基础上，从而提升河南食品工业的整体竞争力。

第20篇：国际贸易论文(运输方式对比分析)

对国际贸易中运输方式的介绍与分析

国际贸易中的货物运输是一个重要环节，主要采用海洋运输，也包括航空运输， 铁路运输，和公路运输，也有管道运输。运输方式具有多样性，我国的国际贸易运输方式主要采用海洋运输，部分使用铁路和公路运输某些货物（如石油）部分使用管道运输；随着航空运输的发展，航空运输的货运量也逐渐增加。国际货物运输根据不同的货物运输需求，结合各种运输方式的特点，使用不同的运输方式。

海洋运输。国际海上货物运输是指使用船舶通过海上航道在不同的国家和地区的港口之间运送货物的一种运输方式。海洋运输是国际贸易中的主要运输方式，我国大部分进出口货物都是通过海洋运输方式达成的。其优势特点为：

1、运输量大。船舶向大型化发展，集装箱船大型化，船舶的载运能力远远大于火车、汽车和飞机，是运输能力最大的运输工具。

2、通过能力大。海上运输利用天然航道四通八达，不受轨道和道路的限制，因而其通过能力要超过其他各种运输方式。

3、运费低廉。由于运货量大，港口等基础设施政府修建，船舶使用时间长，单位燃料所需相对较小，因而价格较低。

4、对货物适应性强。可装载各种类型的货物。其不利特点为：

1、运输速度慢。

2、受海上气候影响大。但是总体而言，海洋运输在国际贸易运输中以其独有的优势条件被广为接受。海洋运输的经营方式主要有班轮运输和租船运输。

铁路运输。铁路运输是仅次于海洋运输的一种主要运输方式。其优势为：准确性和连续性强，运量较大，运输成本低，速度较快，安全可靠，运输风险明显小于海洋运输，能常年保持准点运营。不利特点为：初期投资大。铁路运输需要铺设轨道、建造桥梁和隧道，建路工程艰巨复杂；需要消耗大量钢材、木材；占用土地，其初期投资大大超过其他运输方式。我国外贸铁路运输主要是通往西亚和欧洲的国际铁路联运和往港澳地区的国内铁路运输。国际铁路货物运输主要作用有：

1、通过铁路把欧亚大陆联成一片，为发展中、近东和欧洲各国的贸易提供了有利的条件。有利于发展同欧亚各国的贸易。

2、铁路运输是我国联系港澳地区，开展贸易的一种重要的运输方式。有利于开展同港澳地区的贸易，并通过香港进行转口贸易。香港作为转口贸易基地，开展陆空、陆海联运，为我国发展与东南亚、欧美、非洲、大洋洲各国和地区的贸易，对保证我国出口创汇起着重要作用。

3、对进出口货物在港口的集散和各省、市之间的商品流通起着重要作用。海运出口货物大部分也是由内地通过铁路向港口集中，因此铁路运输是我国国际货物运输的重要集散方式。我国国际贸易进出口货物运输大多都要通过铁路运输这一环节，铁路运输在我国国际货物运输中发挥着重要作用。

4、大陆桥运输是指以大陆上铁路或公路运输系统为中间桥梁，把大陆两端的海洋连接起来的集装箱连贯运输方式。大陆桥运输一般都是以集装箱为媒介，采用国际铁路系统来运送。利用大陆桥开展铁路集装箱运输是必经之道，将会促进我国与这些国家和地区的国际贸易发展。

航空运输。国际航空货物运输虽然起步较晚，但发展极为迅速，已成为我国国际贸易运输的一种重要的运输方式。由于其独特的特点，航空运输主要用于运送小件货物，鲜活商品，季节性商品和贵重商品。相比于其他运输方式，航空运输有如下优点：

1、运送速度快。一方面飞机飞行速度是运输方式中最快的，另一方面，航空线路不受地面条件限制，一般可在两点间直线飞行，航程比地面短得多，而且运程越远，快速的特点就越显著。

2、安全准确。航空运输制度比较完善，货物破损少，尤其是空运集装箱，保证安全；飞行一般有准确时间，所以时间准确。

3、手续简便。

4、可简化包装，节省包装费用。航空运输的缺陷为：运量小，运输费用高，燃料消耗大。航空运输方式主要有班级运输，包机运输，集中托运和航空快递业务。航空运输的作用主要有：

1、高速度和高效率在激烈竞争的国际市场上能起到巨大的竞争优势的作用，能增强产品竞争力，有助于推动国际贸易的发展。

2、航空运输对于时间要求严格、要求快速运输的商品有极大的优势。

3、利用航空来运输像电脑、精密仪器、电子产品、成套设备中的精密部分、贵稀金属、手表、照像器材、纺织品、服装、丝绸、皮革制品、中西药材、工艺品等价值高的商品，适应市场的变化快的特点。可以利用速度快、商品周转快、存货降低、资金迅速回收、节省储存和利息费用、安全、准确。

4、航空运输是国际多式联运的重要组成部分，与其他运输方式配合，使各种运输方式各显其长，相得益彰。

集装箱运输和国际多式联运。集装箱运输是以集装箱作为运输单位进行货物运输的现代化运输方式，目前已成为国际上普遍采用的一种重要的运输方式。国际多式联运是在集装箱运输的基础上产生和发展起来的，一般以集装箱为媒介，把海上运输、铁路运输、公路运输和航空运输等传统单一运输方式，有机地联合起来，来完成国际间的货物运输。集装箱运输有利于减少货物的损坏、偷窃和污染的发生；节省了包装费用。节约时间，能更好地对货物进行控制，转运。基友高效优质低成本的特点。国际多式联运须满足的条件有：1.至少是两种不同运输方式的国际间连贯运输。2.有一份多式联运合同。3.使用一份包括全程的多式联运单据。4.由一个多式联运经营人对全程运输负责。5.是全程单一的运费费率。其优点为1.手续简便，责任统一。2．减少运输过程中的时间损失，使货物运输更快捷。3．节省了运杂费用，降低了运输成本。4.提高了运输组织水平，实现了门到门运输，使合理运输成为现实。

另外，国际贸易运输还有管道运输方式。其使用主要在于输送液体和气体货物的国际贸易中使用，例如我国进口俄罗斯使用的管道运输。其优点为安全可靠，费用低，但前期投入较大，运输速度较慢。

国际贸易中运输方式的使用要根据运输的货物和运输要求来定。只有这样，才能在国际贸易市场上提高自己的竞争力，更好地发展国际贸易。

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